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Chapter 6 Human Rights With the exception of the somewhat questionable doctrine of humanitarian intervention and a state's long-standing responsibility for injuries to aliens, the treatment by a state of those within its jurisdiction was not generally considered to be a legitimate concern of international law until the post-World War I1 period.'" The development of an international law of human rights has been one of the most significant aspects of the post-1945 international legal order, along with decolonization and the resulting independence of scores of new states."' The United Nations Charter contains several references to "human rights and fundamental freedoms." Perhaps the most frequently cited are article 1,which lists among the purposes of the United Nations the achievement of international co-operation "in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion," and article 55, which states that "the United Nations shall promote. . . universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion." Article 371 Earlier protections of minority rights, as opposed to rights of individuals per se, are discussed in chap. 4. 372 See generally John Carey, UN Protection of Civil and Political Rights (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse Univ. Press, 1970);Hannum, Guicle to It~ternutionulHurnan Rights Practice, supra note 286; Henkin. The Interr~ationalBill of Rights, The Covenant on Civil arzrl Politiccil Rights, supra note 208; Richard B. Lillich and Frank C. Newman. Interrlatiorlul Human Rights: Problems of Law and Policy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979);Meron, Human Rights in Ifzternational Law: Legal and Policy Issues. supra note 78; Meron, Hunlun Rights Law-Making in the United Nations. supra note 228; Sieghart, The International Law of Human Rights, supra note 269; Sohn and Buergenthal, International Protectiotl of Hurnan Rights. suprtl note 187; Howard Tolley, Jr., The U.N. Commission on Human Rights (Boulder, CO and London: Westview Press, 1987); Vasak and Alston, The Intert~atior~al Dirnerzsions of Humun Rights, supra note 95. Chapter 6 H,uman Rights With the exception of the somewhat questionable doctrine of humanitarian intervention and a state's long-standing responsibility for injuries to aliens, the treatment by a state of those within its jurisdiction was not generally considered to be a legitimate concern of international law until the post-World War II period.371 The development of an international law of human rights has been one of the most significant aspects of the post-1945 international legal order, along with decolonization and the resulting independence of scores of new states.372 The United Nations Charter contains several references to "human rights and fundamental freedoms." Perhaps the most frequently cited are article 1, which lists among the purposes of the United Nations the achievement of international co-operation "in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion," and article 55, which states that "the United Nations shall promote ... universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion." Article 371 Earlier protections of minority rights, as opposed to rights of individuals per se, are discussed in chap. 4. 372 See generally John Carey" UN Protection of Civil and Political Rights (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse Univ. Press, 1970); Hannum, Guide to International Human Rights Practice, supra note 286; Henkin, The International Bill. of Rights, The Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, supra note 208; Richard B. Lillich and Frank C. Newman, International Human Rights: Problems ofLaw and Policy (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979); Meron, Human Rights in International Law: Legal and Policy Issues, supra note 78; Meron, Human Rights Law-Making in the United Nations, supra note 228; Sieghart, The International Law of Human Rights, supra note 269; Sohn and Buergenthal, International Protection of Human Rights, supra note 187; Howard Tolley, Jr., The U.N. Commission on Human Rights (Boulder, CO and London:, Westview Press, 1987); Vasak and Alston, The Internati.onal Dimensions of Human Rights, supra note 95. Human Rights 105 55's injunction is made binding by article 56, which provides that "[all1 Members pledge themselves to take joint and separate action in cooperation with the Organization for the achievement of the purposes set forth in Article 55." While the Universal Declaration of Human Rights,'73adopted unanimously by the UN General Assembly in 1948, was only proclaimed as "a common...

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