Notes
Notes I N T R O D U C T I O N 1. Report of event from November 1793 in the Independent Gazette, Wednesday, February 26, 1794. See Lynn Hunt, Politics, Culture and Class in the French Revolution (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1982), 63-65. 2. Aurora, August 9,28, 1794. 3. Though explicitly copied from French ceremonies, Americans already had their own highly staged rituals as models. In 1790Judith Sargent Murray described this July Fourth ceremony at Philadelphia's Schuylkill Gardens: "The Arms of America and France entwined by Liberty--a rich display of Fire works, exhibited from the Lawn, in front of the Federal temple--Thirteen Boys, and an equal number of Girls, issuing from the Grove, habited as shepherds, and shepherdesses, and proceeding to the Federal Temple, chanting responsively, an Ode to Liberty, with a number of songs, Odes, and Choruses , in honour of the auspicious event, which the day commemorated." Judith Sargent Murray to her parents, July 10, 1790, From Gloucester to Philadelphia in 1790: Observations, Anecdotes, and Thoughtsfrom the Eighteenth -Century Letters ofJudith Sargent Murray, ed. Bonnie Hurd Smith (Cambridge, Mass.: Judith Sargent Murray Society, 1998), 175. 4. Barbara Welter first described this new definition of gender roles which developed in the early nineteenth century, known as separate spheres ideology , in "The Cult of True Womanhood: 1820-1860," American Quarterly 18 (1966), 151-174. Also see Nancy F. Cott, The Bonds $Womanhood "Womani Sphere" in New England, 1780-1835 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977). For recent thoughts on how historians should move beyond this conceptual framework see Linda Kerber et al., "Beyond Roles, Beyond Spheres: Thinking About Gender in the Early Republic," William and Mary Quarterly 46, no. 3 (1989), 565-585. The concept of Republican Womanhood is treated extensively in Linda Kerber, Women of the Republic: Intellect and Ideology in Revolutionary America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1980), and Mary Beth Norton , Liberty? Daughters: The Revolutionary Experience of American Women, 152 Notes to Pages 2-4 1750-1800 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1980). These are two careful studies of women during the American Revolution and the years immediately following . Both demonstrate how political events affected women's consciousness about their domestic position and encouraged society as a whole to question the traditional status of women. For arguments against the idea that the post-Revolutionary era brought significant change for women the following works are important: Joan Hoff, Law, Gender, and Injustice:A Legal History of US. Women (New York: New York University Press, 1991); Elaine F. Crane, "Dependence in the Era of Independence: The Role of Women in a Republican Society," in TheAmerican Revolution: Its Characterand Limits, ed. Jack P. Greene (New York: New York University Press, 1987); Jan Lewis, "The Republican Wife: Virtue and Seduction in the Early Republic," William and Mary Quarterly 44 (1987); Rosemarie Zagarri, "Morals, Manners, and the Republican Mother,"American Quarterly 44, no. 2 (June 1992);Jan Lewis, "'Of every age sex and condition ': The Representation of Women in the Constitution,"Journal of the Early Republic 15, no. 3 (fall 1995), 359-388. 5. In recent years, historians have relied on variations or emendations to the ideas of Jiirgen Habermas. According to Habermas, the public sphere consisted of elite and middle-class individuals possessing enough education and opportunity to read, write, and converse. Implicitly, the eighteenth-century public sphere was inclusive: "anyone with access to cultural products-books, plays,journals-had at least a potential claim on the attention of the culturedebating public." Craig Calhoun, introduction to Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, Mass.: M I T Press, 1992), 13.It included "all private people , persons who-insofar as they were propertied and educated-[could be] readers, listeners, and spectators."Jiirgen Habermas, The Transformation ofthe Public Sphere, trans. T. Burger and F. Lawrence (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1989), 37, quoted in Calhoun, Habermar and the Public Sphere, 13.The existence of this public sphere enabled the articulation and validation of "processes that promote open discussion among a wide spectrum of social actors on awide range of concerns." In other words, the public sphere had the "capacity to bring citizens together to rationdly present, discuss, and reach a consensus about the general good." Most historians take their definition from Habermas, "The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article (1964))"New German Critiyue 5, no. 2 (1974), 49-55. But as Habermas explains, this inclusiveness only extended to the propertied and the well educated, a group almost exclusively composed...
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