187 Notes Introduction: The Ethos of the Feminine Professional 1. Readers interested in the history of women in medicine in the nineteenth-century United States should consult Ruth J. Abram’s “Send Us a Lady Physician”: Women Doctors in America, 1835–1920; Thomas Neville Bonner’s To the Ends of the Earth: Women’s Search for Education in Medicine; Anne Taylor Kirschmann’s A Vital Force: Women in American Homeopathy; Gloria Moldow’s Women Doctors in Gilded-Age Washington: Race, Gender, and Professionalization; Regina Morantz-Sanchez ’s Sympathy and Science: Women Physicians in American Medicine and Conduct Unbecoming a Woman: Medicine on Trial in Turn-of-the-Century Brooklyn; Ellen Singer More’s Restoring the Balance: Women Physicians and the Profession of Medicine , 1850–1995; Mary Roth Walsh’s “Doctors Wanted: No Women Need Apply”: Sexual Barriers in the Medical Profession, 1835–1975; and biographies of early women physicians such as Elizabeth Blackwell (written by Julia Boyd), Mary Gove Nichols (by Jean L. Silver-Isenstadt), Mary Putnam Jacobi (by Carla Bittel), and Marie Zakrzewska (by Arleen Tuchman). 1. Debating the Character of the Woman Physician 1. Hunt began practicing medicine in 1835, after an apprenticeship with the Motts, practitioners of botanical medicine. Although she never earned a formal medical degree, she was eventually awarded an honorary doctorate from the Woman ’s Medical College of Pennsylvania (“Harriet [sic] Kizia Hunt” 203). 2. In his study of the men who founded and taught at the Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania, Steven J. Peitzman reminds readers that “male hostility to women’s entry into the medical profession was . . . only nearly universal” (578). Indeed, women depended on men for medical instruction and professional sponsorship, especially in the early days before women had established their own medical institutions. s 188 Notes to Pages 14–33 3. Women seeking to practice homeopathy faced less opposition in this field than in regular medicine; in fact, several of the leading male homeopathic physicians argued that women were necessary to the school’s success. For example, in 1870 Carroll Dunham advocated women’s admission to the profession as a means of improving the efficacy of homeopathy’s treatments: “My studies have, for years past, shown me the weakness of the Homœopathic Materia Medica in respect of the physiological effects of drugs upon the peculiar organism of women. This is due to the fact that but few of the provers to whose observations we owe our Materia Medica were women” (159). Knowledge about what drugs to prescribe in what doses was developed through provings, the administering of drugs to healthy individuals to determine their effects. Typically, these tests were performed on medical students or on patients the physician could rely on to follow directions and report results accurately. Including women physicians in this research would extend homeopathy’s knowledge of the effects of medications because women could recruit other women to participate in provings or perform provings on themselves, thereby identifying drugs’ effects on women. Because it was believed that women were well positioned to further the scientific agenda of homeopathy, as early as 1869 prominent male homeopaths advocated women’s full admission to the American Institute of Homeopathy , a recommendation that was adopted in 1871 (Kirschmann 76). In contrast, the “regular” American Medical Association did not formally admit women to its membership until 1915, although it had permitted women to be seated as delegates representing their local organizations starting with Sarah Hackett Stevenson in 1876 (Morantz-Sanchez, Sympathy 179). 4. Putnam Jacobi was extraordinarily prolific, composing over one hundred publications; although many of these were professional articles, she also contributed to public discussions of women’s rights, vivisection, and the education of children. One of Putnam Jacobi’s most important publications was The Question of Rest for Women during Menstruation, which refuted Edward H. Clarke’s Sex in Education; or, A Fair Chance for the Girls (1873) and won the Boyleston Prize from Harvard University in 1876. She taught materia medica at the Women’s Medical College of the New York Infirmary for Women and Children and worked as an attending physician at the New York Infirmary, opening a pediatric ward there in 1886. See Reed 97–111 for a bibliography of Putnam Jacobi’s work. 5. See Tuchman (“‘Only in a Republic’”) for a discussion of physician Marie Zakrzewska’s resistance to the idea that science was a masculine activity. 6. Ann Preston became the first woman dean of the Woman’s Medical College of Pennsylvania...