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3. The Instruments of Power
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chapter three The Instruments of Power F rom 1838 to 1846 British governments could make foreign policy decisions based on the Royal Navy’s ability to project the nation’s power. Examining the state of the navy and the military capabilities it made possible allows for analysis of the connections between British naval abilities, British diplomacy, and a Pax Britannica. The Royal Navy’s penetration, reach, and resources gave Britain special strength, compared not just to less-developed regions and societies but also to other European powers. Advances in Naval Technology Discussion of British naval technology in this pivotal period is complicated by the fact that technology was changing constantly. Some historians have viewed the Admiralty administrations in this period as hidebound and resistant to innovation, but a closer look shows that British officials thoughtfully considered new technology and adopted it when its abilities were proven. For reasons of economy, though, they left much of the initial research and development to Britain’s thriving private sector.1 The many changes embraced by the Admiralty preserved the Royal Navy’s position as the strongest and most effective navy in the world. 38 the instruments of power Britain’s immense fleet of warships reached the peak of its strength in this period, thanks to improvements in traditional wooden vessels. Although the fleet included some ships that dated back to 1815, by the early Victorian period even these were stronger and better armed. The Admiralty structurally reinforced and strengthened its older warships, especially ships of the line, the strongest sailing war vessels (carrying 70 to 120 guns on two or three covered decks), and the frigates (with a single covered gun deck and 32 to 60 guns) used for commerce protection. It preferred to renovate rather than use up valuable timber for new ships, even though it authorized production of these as well. The sturdier ships could carry larger guns, which added to the overall firepower of the fleet. Lessons learned in the Napoleonic War led to further adjustments in construction and refurbishment, including better seasoning of timber, slow building in facilities protected from the weather, and an improved maintenance regime, all of which ensured that Royal Navy ships lasted longer than their predecessors and their rivals.2 Heavier guns and gunnery training also improved the Royal Navy’s effectiveness. In 1839 the Admiralty decided to install shell-firing guns on thirty ships of the line and forty frigates. Developed by French Col. Henri Paixhans in the years after 1815, shell guns had been adopted by France’s navy as well, prompting the British to match French efforts. Although they were still being tested in the early 1840s and were less accurate than solid shot, shells offered greater explosive power per piece—an important consideration, especially for ships that had room only for relatively few guns.3 Congreve rockets were also used in this period; a British steamer destroyed [18.206.76.160] Project MUSE (2024-03-29 14:05 GMT) the instruments of power 39 numerous Chinese war junks with the rockets in the first Opium War.4 Even more effective than exploding projectiles were the new sixty-eight-pound muzzle-loading smooth bore guns. This solid shot artillery was powerful, easier to aim than shells, and effective at long range. Adm. Sir Robert Stopford, commander in chief in the Mediterranean, praised the heavy guns in the 1840 Syrian campaign for adding unexpected firepower and range even to small ships.5 To get the most out of its new weaponry the Admiralty systematized naval gunnery training and established the training ship Excellent in 1830. Operations in both China and Syria would later show that the instruction and exercise paid off. British sailors demolished Chinese coastal fortifications and directed “murderous” broadsides against Syrian forts manned by inexperienced Egyptian gunners. After the British victory at Acre in the Syrian campaign, one participant judged that “for guns of that period in wooden ships, something like perfection had been attained.”6 Perhaps the most important new technology for increasing the capabilities and reach of the British navy was steam power. Between 1815 and 1850 Britain pioneered the development of steam warships and the tactics for using them. The Royal Navy first used a steam engine in 1802, and in 1819, when a private steamer showed off its ability to tow a warship, the Admiralty ordered its own steam-powered tugs. In 1827 it launched the first seagoing steam warship in the world, hms Dee. Meanwhile, the...