Selling Beauty: Cosmetics, Commerce, and French Society, 1750–1830

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INDEX

The letter f following a page number denotes a figure.

Abdeker, 104, 115, 136, 139–41, 142, 144, 146, 152

Academy of Sciences, 109, 111–12, 115, 120, 129, 162

account books, 22

adultery, 85, 87

advertising: audience for, 69

campaigns, 52, 62

criticisms, 71–72

gendered, 69

increase, 52, 54, 57, 60

innovations, 8, 57, 125, 169

language, 60, 62, 65, 67–68

length, 62

medical language in, 120–21, 163

medical patents in, 118–22

morality, language of, in, 122, 123–24, 132

natural beauty in, 122–25

newspaper, 52, 54

number of advertisers, 58

numbers, 191n30, 191n38

repeat, 60–61

rules and censorship, 53–54, 119

sexuality in, 145–46, 147

success, 71

types, 57

advice manuals: advocating cosmetics, 105–6, 108

criticisms of cosmetics, 100–102, 118

by doctors, 9, 99, 105

German, 14

history, 19–21, 100

oriental, 139, 141

professional audience for, 21, 38

source for consumerism, 8, 12

for women, 97, 105, 116. See also recipes

affiches: advertisements in, 125

charges for inserts, 55, 56

history, 53–54, 56–57

importance, 70

readership, 55

subscriptions, 55

aristocracy: consumers of luxury, 34, 40, 43

cosmetics use, 12, 15, 17, 19, 22, 75, 82, 128

criticisms, 5–6, 73–74, 83, 88–89, 94, 134, 175

decline of standing, 156, 158

fashions, 5, 89, 122, 127

as patrons, 39, 63, 65, 130

portraits, 28–30, 135

artifice: criticisms, 2, 73, 74, 77, 82, 89, 127

elite fashion, 12, 23

French, 137, 153

history, 1–2

justification, 107

male, 85, 157, 179, 180

medical, 144

naturalized, 10, 79, 107

during Revolution, 48

social role, 81

unnatural, 9, 79, 89

women’s use, 6

artisans suivant la cour, 63

Avant Coureur, 55, 56, 120, 122

Balzac, Honoré de, 43, 48, 114–15, 144, 167, 172–73

bankruptcy, 8, 39, 43–44, 50, 62

Barry, Madame de, 134, 146

bazaar economy, 33, 52, 63

beauty: biological imperative, 106–7, 124

as curse, 87

definition, 90, 93, 95

links to sin, 106

loss due to cosmetics, 103

natural, 74, 118, 133

in novels, 87

power, 138

sale of, 68

beauty patches. See mouches

Bell, Quentin, 158

Berg, Maxine, 7

biological imperative for beauty. See beauty

blanc: advertisements, 123

dangers, 102, 103–4, 123

ingredients, 14, 103

uses, 14, 155, 178

Bonnet, Louis Marin, 94–95, 96f

Bossenga, Gail, 33

Boucher, François, 28

brand names, 8, 33, 40, 51, 57, 60, 71

buyers (consumers): advertisements used by, 53, 61 62, 66–67, 146, 156

as dupes, 26, 64, 65, 71, 97, 125, 143

education, 62, 71, 108, 112, 119, 175, 176

expansion, 22–23, 52–53, 61

gender, 24, 38, 69, 167, 173

practices, 176

purchases, 23–24, 25

relationship to seller, 32, 149, 175–76

during Revolution, 49

shift from makers to, 19, 21

testimonials, 169

working-class, 26, 27

calvitie. See hair loss

Campbell, Colin, 7

capitalism. See free market

Caraccioli, Louis Antoine de, 77, 80, 82, 83, 87, 89, 91

Carmontelle, Louis Carrogis, 28–29, 29f

Caron, Antoine, perfumer, 48

Casanova, Giacomo, 25, 26, 45, 76, 80

Catherine the Great, Empress of Russia, 13, 45, 63, 130

Censer, Jack, 60

César Birotteau, 43, 48, 114, 144, 172–73

Chardin, Jean-Baptiste-Siméon, 28

charlatans: criticisms, 39, 98, 105

control of cosmetics trade, 110, 112, 129, 170

fear of, 64, 70, 121, 128, 162

Choderlos de Laclos, P. A. F., 92, 102

Circassians, 135, 144, 146, 147

Clairon, Claire-Josèphe-Hippolyte Léris, 10, 178–79

clientele. See buyers

Collin, Joseph: bankruptcy, 44, 62

business model, 42

proposal to regulate rouge, 129–30

publicity campaign, 61–66, 120

safety of rouge, 111–12

Commission de santé, 113

Commission royale de médecine, 109, 121

consumer market, 10, 70–71, 114, 118, 155, 156, 172, 176

consumer revolution, 2–4, 7–8, 31, 33, 74, 131, 175

consumers. See buyers

containers of cosmetics, 18, 30, 47, 67

Coquery, Natacha, 4, 58

coquettes: criticisms, 85, 138

old age, 80

reformed, 94

sensuality, 76, 90, 134

toilette, 76

victim of artifice, 79, 87

women as, 86

Corbin, Alain, 99

court, royal: cosmetics use, 13, 15, 19, 82

fashions, 1, 74, 176–77

foreign, 45, 47

oriental styles, 134

privileges to artisans, 40, 45, 63

rouge use, 12, 13, 27, 28, 31, 126

women’s rule over, 86

criticisms of cosmetics, 73, 174

aesthetic arguments, 9, 77–82

behavioral arguments, 105

blurring class lines, 88–89

deceit of makeup, 81, 85, 137–38

history, 75

medical arguments, 101–4, 114

moral arguments, 77, 85–89, 105, 132

overuse, 88

Crowston, Clare, 3, 37

currency, value of French, 186n78

David, Jacques Louis, 30, 177, 179

depilatory creams, 16

Deshais-Gendron, Louis-Florent, 102, 106, 120

Diderot, Denis, 28, 38, 64, 83, 103

Dissey and Piver, 145, 145f, 149, 150f

Douthwaite, Julia, 140

Duplessis, Joseph-Siffrid, 30

eaux (toilette), 13, 16, 122

Elbée, chevalier de, 128–29, 133

empiricism, 9, 99, 100, 108, 112

emulation, 4, 27–28, 69, 74, 88, 122, 159, 175

England: advertisements, 57, 61

control of Levant trade, 146

criticism of aristocracy, 94

criticisms of French artifice, 74, 75

fashion, 156, 158, 178

Enlightenment: in advertising language, 2, 7, 174

attacks on luxury, 9

free market, 32

individualism, 89, 136

simpler fashions, 1, 158

transparency, 73, 94, 118

exotic, 7, 134–35, 142, 146, 153, 167, 174

Exposition des produits de l’industrie française, 51, 171

eye makeup, 16

face paint. See blanc

Faculté de médecine. See Medical Faculty

Fairchild, Cissie, 3

falsification of cosmetics, 65, 143

fard: definition, 14

invention, 139–40

Fargeon, Jean Louis (perfumer), 40, 44

fashion: changes, 1, 34, 38, 45, 49, 73, 89, 94

cosmetic makers’ control, 34, 52

criticisms, 73, 79–80, 91

dangers, 81, 86, 92, 103

elite control, 93, 127

feminization, 6, 24, 69, 74, 94, 126, 131

French, 13, 74

journals and, 55, 69, 125–26

men’s, 82, 84, 93, 156

natural, 5, 74, 75, 89, 90, 92

philosophes and, 93, 94

during Revolution, 48

feminization of: consumers, 118, 129

fashion, 6, 24, 69, 74, 94, 126, 131

Festa, Lynn, 14, 86

Flügel, J. C., 6, 83, 156

Foucault, Michel, 97, 98

Fragonard, Jean-Honoré, 28

free market: capitalism, 33, 58, 60

for cosmetics, 37

criticisms, 128

Enlightenment value, 32

government policy, 130, 132

during Revolution, 52, 61, 112–13

French producers and goods: anti-, 135, 142, 144

commercial might, 146–47, 148, 149

inventors, 169, 171

gambling, 85, 86, 87

gender roles: advertisers’ use, 118

shift in, 1, 3, 24, 74, 83, 90, 93, 156

Genlis, Stéphanie Comtesse de, 12, 45, 80, 86, 92

Georgians, 135, 141, 144, 146, 147

Germany, 14

Girodet, Anne-Louis, 10, 179–80, 181f

glove makers, 35

Grasse, 35, 36, 39, 50

Greuze, Jean-Baptiste, 30

guarantees of satisfaction, 66, 120

guilds: abolishment, 38, 130

advertisements, against, 53–54, 58

patents and, 119

regulations, 34, 52, 110

women in, 37. See also perfumers

Gwilliam, Tassie, 140

hair dye, 16, 109, 155

hair loss, 155, 159, 164–70, 180

hair potion, 156, 164, 166–70

harem: advertising, 142–46, 148–49

corruption, 138

despotism, 137, 139–40

female rebellion, 137, 140

morality, 140

sexuality, 134–35, 138, 141–42, 145–46, 147, 153

true beauty, 137–40 144, 152

white women, 134, 135–36, 141, 145

Hollander, Anne, 157

Houbigant, Jean François, perfumer, 40

humeral theory, 98, 102

hygiene and health: advertisements, 122

government concern, 103

hair fashions, 162, 164, 166

medical advice, 100, 102, 108, 166

social control, 97–99

industrious revolution, 25

industry of cosmetics, 39, 50–51

ingredients in cosmetics, 99, 100, 101

innovation, 4, 64, 70, 71, 119

itinerant hawkers, 27, 36, 37, 40, 128. See also nonguild sellers

je ne sais quoi, 89, 90, 94

Jollain, René Nicolas, 94–95, 95f

Jones, Colin, 4, 55, 58, 70

Jones, Jennifer, 24, 37, 89, 126, 131

Journal de Paris, 54

Journal de politique et de littérature, 120, 129

Journal des dames, 54, 88, 104, 125, 147, 179

Kaplan, Steven, 37, 130

Kuchta, David, 156

Kwass, Michael, 6, 7

Lanoë, Catherine, 4

Laugier, Marie-Jean-François, perfumer, 50

Lavoisier, Antoine, 111–12, 114, 120, 162

Le Camus, Antoine: advertising influenced by, 142, 144

criticisms, 103

medical knowledge, 104, 108

oriental tale, 136, 139–41

popularity, 103, 115, 144

rouge dangers, 101

Lichtenstein, Jacqueline, 87

Linguet, Simon-Nicolas-Henri, 120–21, 129

lips cosmetics, 15

Louis XIV, 1, 13, 19, 20, 89

Louis XV, 12, 13, 40, 86

Louis XVI, 44

Lubin, Pierre François (perfumer), 40

luxury: cosmetics, 7, 10, 18, 30, 63, 67, 131

criticisms, 5, 6, 9, 37, 74, 88

debates, 5

defense, 131

new definition, 74

during Revolution, 48, 49, 163

shops, 26

trades, 34, 39, 40–41, 45, 64, 130, 160

Macassar oil, 167, 169, 172

Maille, Antoine Claude: brand building, 8

commercial reputation, 45–47

infringing on guilds, 111

medical language, 121

publicity campaign, 61–64, 66–67, 122, 123–24

public opinion, 105, 161

Marie Antoinette, Queen of France, 1, 16, 18, 80, 91, 176–77

Marie de Saint-Ursin, P. J., 100, 101, 105–6, 107, 165

marketing: campaigns, 61, 135, 142

sellers control, 117

strategies, 8, 52, 57, 60, 121, 149, 175. See also advertising

Martin, Marc, 57, 58

Martin, Mme (rouge maker), 24, 37, 40

masculine renunciation, 6, 83, 155, 156, 158

masks, 77, 78–79, 82, 134, 140

Maza, Sara, 5

McKendrick, Neil, 3, 4

Medical Faculty, 97, 109, 112, 113

Mège, J. B., 97, 115–16

men: beauty, 74, 83

cosmetics use, 10, 82–83, 85

dupes of women, 81

fashion, 166

feminization, 77, 83–84, 127, 165

grooming, 157

new man, 85, 93, 155, 156, 157, 180

sexuality, 164, 165

toilette rejection, 1, 6, 24, 83, 156, 164

vanity, 155, 157, 170, 173. See also masculine renunciation

mercers, 3, 35

Mercier, Louis-Sébastien: colors of rouge, 27

criticisms of cosmetics, 77, 89

inoculation for smallpox, 102

on Maille, 46, 47

men’s fashion, 93

price of rouge, 31

powder, 161–62

revolutionary commerce, 49

wigs, 26, 158

women’s beauty, 93

Mercure de France, 54, 55, 56, 62

minerals: alum, 15, 103

arsenic, 9

bismuth, 14, 100, 101, 103

cinnabar, 101

iron, 121

lead, 9, 101, 109

lime, 161

mercury, 9, 15, 100, 101, 103

minium/litharge (lead oxide), 15, 16, 101, 103, 106, 109, 121

nitrate, 103

nitric acid, 101

potash, 111

quicklime (calcium oxide), 16, 18, 109

sulfur, 100, 101, 109

white lead, 14, 16, 100, 101, 109

Mitchell, Jerrine, 177

Montagu, Lady Mary Wortley, 76

Montesquieu, Charles de Secondat, Baron de, 136–38

morality, language of, 77, 85–89, 103, 105–6, 122–24, 126–27, 132, 136, 140

mouches, 15, 18, 23, 152

names of cosmetics, 67–68

Napoleon, Emperor: advertisement of, 149, 151f

control of press, 56

Egyptian campaign, 145, 146–47, 148

imperial project, 9, 152

loans to perfumer, 50

rouge and Josephine, 12

Nattier, Marc, 28, 29

natural beauty: advertisers’ use, 123–24, 133

consumers and, 176

failure, 182

makeup’s goal, 81, 123–24

new elites’ support, 74

physicians’ support, 101

women’s goal, 89, 90, 91–94

natural woman, new, 90–91, 94, 99, 127

nécessaire, 18

nonguild sellers: advertisers, 144

aiming at lower classes, 40

cosmetics sellers, 8, 33, 34

criticisms, 54

inventors, 64

patents to, 110, 119

Revolutionary freedom, 61

rouge control, 24, 37, 128

types of stores, 42. See also itinerants

Nougaret, Pierre Jean Baptiste, 80, 84, 86–87

old age: in men, 84, 158–59, 172, 180–81

in women, 77, 78f, 80–81, 125, 137, 178–79, 181

Orient: corruption, 136, 142, 147

ingredients from, 142–43

literary, 135–39

marketing, 68, 134, 135, 142, 144, 146, 153, 175

merchants from, 143, 147–48. See also harem

Ottoman Empire, 134, 135, 143, 147

outlets, 42–43, 65–66

painting, as analogy for cosmetics, 77–78

paintings, of cosmetics use, 12, 27–30, 94–96, 177–78, 180

Palais-Royal, 26, 27, 30, 41

Pardailhé-Galabrun, Annik, 3

patents: advertisers’ use, 63, 118–22

guild and, 110, 111, 119

history, 108–9

ingredients for rejection/acceptance, 109

invention for rejection/acceptance, 110, 113

medical language, 9, 111, 118, 174

during Revolution, 112–14

perfumers’ guild: bankruptcies, 43–44

cosmetics manufacture, 8, 33–39

decline, 38, 44–45, 50

history, 35

opposition to, 64

patents, 110

royal court, 40

shops, 41–42

Perrot, Philippe, 88, 98

Persian Letters, 136–38

péruvienne, 138

petit maîtres, 77, 82–85, 93, 161, 164, 165

Phillippy, Patricia, 6, 74, 75

philosophes: beauty practices, control of, 117

criticisms of cosmetics, 73, 162, 174

hygienic revolution, 98

influence on affiches, 60

innovation, support of, 64

luxury definition, 5

new man, 93

redefinition of social order, 94

physicians: advice to men, 157

advisors to women, 6, 9, 99, 104, 114, 139

biological imperative for cosmetics, 106–7, 115

criticisms of cosmetics, 101–4, 114, 170

hair loss, 165–66

moderation, 105

morality, 103, 105–6

patent control, 108–12, 115, 119

professionalization, 3, 108, 113, 174

during Revolution, 112–13

physiognomy, 73, 74, 89

police, 37, 53, 54, 63, 110, 113, 114, 119

pommades, 16, 23

Pompadour, Madame de, 86, 134

populuxe goods, 3, 32, 33, 40, 142, 143

pornography, 136, 141–42, 178

postal system, 47

powder, hair: advertisements, 163–64

amount consumed, 162

buyers, 23

criticisms, 161

foodstuff in, 162–63

ingredients, 16, 161

innovations, 162–63

loss of market, 10, 155, 160–61

origins, 13

prices, 24

reasons for wearing, 161

during Revolution, 163–64

starch makers role in, 36

prices: cosmetics, 24–25, 31, 39, 67, 167

fixed, 66–67

prostitution: advertisements and, 125

cosmetics links, 81, 85, 87, 88, 129, 131, 132

elites’ links, 89

natural beauty and, 182

publicity, 64. See also advertising

race, 135, 137, 141, 142, 145–46, 152–53, 169

recipes: books, 97, 100

food in, 20

homemade cosmetics, 19, 67, 167

oral tradition, 19, 20, 33, 104

orient, 149

professional, 21

types, 20–21. See also advice manuals

Restif de la Bretonne, Nicolas-Edmé, 26, 56, 77, 83–84, 87

Revolution of 1789: advertisements during, 60–61

bans on powder, 163–64

cosmetics production, 48–50, 126

free market, 52, 61, 112, 113

gender role changes, 156

men’s fashion, 157, 158, 179–80

monopolies, 130

natural fashion, 2

patent system, 112

self-presentation, 1

Robespierre, Maximilien, 158, 161

Roche, Daniel, 3, 25, 73, 78, 176

Root, Hilton, 130

rouge: amount consumed, 128

dangers, 102

fabrication, 37

gender of buyers, 24

ingredients, 15, 101, 111

liquid, 124

monopoly over, 9, 118, 127–31

origins, 13

en pot, 15, 18

prices, 24, 31

rouge-vert, 123

safety, 104, 111, 125

social class, 27

uses, 15

vegetable, 15, 101, 112, 120–21, 123, 126, 127, 129

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques: advertisers’ use, 118, 122

breastfeeding, 91

cult of nature, 9, 118

elite women, criticism, 88

natural beauty, 91–92, 93, 182

powder, 162

taste, 90

wigs, 158

Roussel, Pierre, 106

Rowland, Alex, 167

Roxelane, sultana, 136, 144

royalist perfumers, 48–49

rue Saint-Honoré, 26, 41, 42

Said, Edward, 136

Sargenston, Carolyn, 3

science: advertisers’ use, 118, 120–21, 169

chemistry, 21, 103

physicians’ use, 99–100, 102, 114, 166

vanity validated by, 106, 108

Scott, Katie, 58

shopping, 7, 26, 37, 58, 128

shops, 25–26, 41–42, 47

Shovlin, John, 5

six corps, 35, 53, 54

smallpox, 102–3

soap, 18, 98

Société royale de médecine (Society of Medecine), 9, 53, 109–12, 115, 119, 121

Sonnenscher, Michael, 34

Sorcy, Comtesse de, 177

starch makers, 36, 160–64

taste masters, 6–7, 117, 158, 175

teeth: cosmetics for, 17

dangers to, 101

importance, 107

Terror, reign of, 48, 49, 61, 161

theater, 78–79

actresses in, 85, 87, 88, 128, 178–79

Tissot, S. A. D., 98, 103

Titus haircut, 48, 155, 163, 171, 180

Todd, Christopher, 60

toilette: feminization, 69, 124

immorality, 87

men and, 1, 24, 83, 156, 164

Oriental, 134

paintings, 28, 76, 94

physicians control, 99, 104

practices, 25–26, 76

spaces for, 18, 22, 104, 107, 112

trade cards, 58, 59f

transparency, 5, 73, 89, 92, 94, 107, 118, 122

Turgot, A. R. J., 38

Valade, Jean, 30

vanity: biological imperative of, 107–8, 115, 124

caused by makeup, 77, 79

causing makeup use, 71, 86

female docility, 140

French, 137

men’s, 155, 157, 170, 173

Van Loo, Amadée, 134, 146

Van Loo, Carle, 134, 135

Vauquelin, Nicolas, 115, 172–73

Veblen, Thorstein, 4. See also emulation

vegetable ingredients, 101, 102, 112, 114, 123, 149, 163

Vickery, Amanda, 6

Vigarello, George, 98

Vigée-Lebrun, Elisabeth, 1, 177

vinegar: dangers, 106, 109

makers, 36, 45

rouge, 15, 46, 64, 67, 68, 101, 124

uses, 14, 17, 121, 122

virginity, cosmetics for, 17, 46, 178

Voltaire, 141, 162

Vries, Jan de, 25. See also industrious revolution

wages, eighteenth century, 25

Walpole, Henry, 27

Walsh, Claire, 58

water, washing, 17, 98, 114, 122. See also hygiene and health

wigmakers, 35, 117–18, 160

wigs: advertisements, 170, 172

decline, 155

justifications for, 171

origins, 13

post-Revolution, 171, 179–80

shops, 26

styles, 156, 158, 170

Wilson, Lindsay, 98, 105

women: attacks on, 6, 74, 80, 137

biological traits, 166

competition between, 79–80

deceitful, 81

guild members, 37

patrons to physicians, 98

protection of, 128, 133

self-deception, 82

sexuality, 76, 180

in trades, 37, 42, 119, 128

weaknesses, 86. See also coquettes; feminization of: fashion; natural woman; old age