Nested Ecology: The Place of Humans in the Ecological Hierarchy

5 Cosmic Ecology and the Ecology of the Unknown

67 FIVE Cosmic Ecology and the Ecology of the Unknown .................................................................................................................................... Human Influence on Cosmic Ecological Systems .................................................................................................................................... The most elementary course in biology acquaints students with the basics regarding how the sun interacts with the climate, soil, and water of Earth to allow for photosynthesis and life as we know it (Martin, 1962). The planet is literally bathed in cosmic radiation not only from the sun, but from the depths of the universe itself. In fact, scientists have known since the late 1990s that cosmic rays produced by distant exploding stars interact with airborne particles in the lower atmosphere to create heavier cloud formations, producing global shading, rain, and cooler temperatures (Marsh and Svensmark, 2000; Perry and Hsu, 2000; Svensmark , 1998; Shindell et al., 1999). Moreover, researchers have discovered that solar winds produced by sunspots can ‘‘blow away’’ sufficient cosmic rays in the atmosphere to reduce cloud cover and influence climate (Svensmark and Calder, 2007; Shaviv and Veizer, 2004; Shindell et al., 2001). While suspended in the vacuum of the universe, the planet Earth remains inextricably embedded within a cosmic ecosystem that sustains it and largely dictates the conditions under which life on the planet will exist. Given the current state of scientific knowledge, it is now possible to begin understanding how the universe influences life upon the planet. However, unlike in terrestrial ecosystems, it is more difficult to determine what influence human activity has made upon the immediate solar system. Sadly, humans have spread their litter beyond the limits of the planet. Countless satellite launches, space probes, and spacecraft have left what one 2007 study estimates to be more than eleven thousand detectable objects orbiting Earth (Barker and Matney, 2007; Smirnov, 2001). This 68 NESTED ECOLOGY orbiting debris poses significant risks to astronauts working on the International Space Station and to spacecraft orbiting the planet and may periodically pose a risk to humans residing on the Earth in the rare instances when large pieces of debris plummet from orbit and strike human dwellings or communities. Thankfully, the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) implemented an orbital debris mitigation policy to reduce or minimize the debris field orbiting the planet (NASA, 2007). However, the process of pursuing space exploration and the enhancement of human life via the launching and utilization of orbiting telecommunications and weather satellites has produced a situation in which the integrity of the atmospheric ecosystem that encompasses the planet has been compromised—even if only marginally. The integrity of our atmospheric ecosystem, which some have referred to as our ‘‘near-Earth environment,’’ has become an area of growing concern (Portee and Loftus, 1993), and the U.S. and other nations participating in space exploration have engaged in a process of environmental impact assessment to determine the extent to which human activities have degraded this near-Earth environment (Viikari, 2002). Unfortunately , environmental impact assessments depend upon the capacity of humans to accurately measure environmental influences, and in the case of space environments such activities ‘‘cannot necessarily be assessed in detail’’ (Viikari, 2002, 2). ‘‘Outer space’’ is considered ‘‘a global commons and any adverse environmental effects of space exploration and utilization are therefore likely to be severe, irreversible, and expansive in scope’’ (Milne, 2002; Viikari, 2002). The extent to which humans will feel free to pollute the space surrounding Earth is dependent upon whether space is considered to possess any ‘‘intrinsic’’ value or whether it narrowly serves as a natural resource for human use. Consequently, there exists a degree of uncertainty regarding the ethics involved in polluting space as a matter of principle, as opposed to considerations that narrowly derive from protecting the well-being of space travelers and spacecraft. Circumterrestrial Space and the Biosphere .................................................................................................................................... Adjacent to the region of ‘‘outer space’’ where spacecraft, satellites, and space stations operate, and within which space debris resides, is an area COSMIC ECOLOGY AND THE ECOLOGY OF THE UNKNOWN 69 know as ‘‘circumterrestrial space’’ (Murtazov, 2003). This region includes layers of ‘‘high atmosphere’’ at approximately 200 kilometers, the ionosphere , and the magnetosphere. This ‘‘circumterrestrial space’’ has also been contaminated by humans with a variety of pollutants including fluorocarbons , radiation, ozone, and other chemical compounds. Circumterrestial space is further influenced by accumulations of dust, smog, and other particulates in the atmosphere generated by human technogenic activities. It is also occupied by a variety of agents emanating from outside the planet...