i n d e x Page numbers in italics indicate figures and tables. ABE (adult basic education), 169–70, 173, 255, 256 academic counseling, 195, 202 academic preparedness: community colleges and, 3; developmental education and, 158–66, 160– 61; dual enrollment programs and, 224, 253; K–12 system and, 5–6 academic standards and accountability systems, 73–75 accelerated remedial courses, 176 access to college: community colleges and, 6–8, 246–47; dual enrollment programs and, 242– 44; importance of, 1, 3; proximity and, 7, 18–19 accountability systems: academic standards and, 73–75; challenges of, 262–63; compliance costs of, 76; development of, 8; forms of, 53; funding and, 59–60, 72–73, 78–79, 262–63; growth of movement for, 250; history of, 51; inequality of institutional capacity and, 73; job placement and, 66–67, 68, 71, 78; knowledge changes and, 60–61; measures and, 69–71; mediated changes and, 58, 62–69, 63; mission and, 76; at National Field Study sites, 55–58, 56–57; nature of, 52; obstacles to, 69–73, 70, 78–79; open-door admissions and, 75–76; organizational impacts of, 58–62, 68–69, 77; overview of, 15–17, 80–83; P-16, 84n12; as paper tiger, 249; potential and liabilities of, 52; publicly unintended impacts of, 73–76, 74, 79–80; recommendations for, 76–79; remediation and, 62–63, 64; research on state systems, 54–55; retention, graduation, and, 64– 66, 65, 70–71; sources of demands for, 53–54; status competition and, 61–62; student impacts and, 58, 62–69, 63; theory of action behind, 83n1; transfer rates and, 66, 67. See also outcomes accreditation systems, 12, 17, 94 Achieving the Dream initiative, 4, 5, 85n21, 269n1 active counseling, 206, 218 Adelman, Cli√ord, A Parallel Postsecondary Universe, 103 administrators: certification programs and, 140– 41; on-line courses and, 117–18, 120; on-line education and, 113–15; organizational structures of, 39–41, 40, 41, 42; perceptions of for-profit schools of, 97–102, 98 admission requirements for dual enrollment, 231– 32, 242–43, 244 adult basic education (ABE), 169–70, 173, 255, 256 Advanced Placement (AP) program, 6, 232, 239, 242 advising: definition of, 202; distance education and, 117; by faculty, 207–8 Advisory Committee on Student Financial Aid, 1 American Association of Community Colleges, 138 AP (Advanced Placement) program, 6, 232, 239, 242 applied academics, 177 applied baccalaureates, 11, 14, 30 baby boom echo, 106, 250 baccalaureate: applied, 11, 14, 30; completion of, 10–11; economic opportunity and, 28–29 Baer, Walter, 112 Bailey, Thomas, 23 Bass, Randy, 128 300 Index bias in guidance and counseling, 209–10 boutique programs, 269 Bridges to Opportunity initiative, 270n1 ‘‘broad’’ counseling, 210–11 California: accountability systems in, 58; community college districts in, 22; dual enrollment programs in, 227–28 career counseling, 195, 201 career exploration coursework, 203–4, 212 career pathways, 255–56 Carl D. Perkins Vocational and Technical Education Act, 6, 67 Carnevale, Dan, 113 centralization of developmental education, 166, 168–70, 183, 254 certifications, industry-based: assessment of, 149– 50, 151–52; benefits of, 149; challenges of, 150– 53, 256; Cisco, 48–49, 133; dark side of, 146–50; demand for, 133; as departure from traditional vocational education, 136–37; embedding of in Associate programs, 149; enrollment in, 145, 150; for-profit schools and, 93, 102–4; incorporation of, at National Field Study sites, 139–46, 140, 142–44, 151; mission and, 46; overview of, 17–18; preparation for, 136; private vendors and, 145– 46, 153; responses to, 133–34, 137–38; specific versus general programs and, 148–49; student demand for, 141, 145, 152; tuition charged for, 147–48 challenges: accountability, 15–17, 262–63; counseling and student services, 257–58; declining state funding, 13–15; developmental education, 254– 55; distance education, 18–19, 258–59; dual enrollment, 252–54; for-profit higher education , 18; industry-based certifications, 17–18; noncredit courses, 255–56; overview of, 12–13, 250–52; transfer, 260–62; ‘‘vocationalization,’’ 19–20 Charron, Kerry, 23 Cisco certification programs, 48–49, 133 classroom use and dual enrollment, 233 class size, 170 community college, history of, 246–48 Community College of Denver, 184–85 Community College Research Center at Teachers College, Columbia University, 23 competition: certificate programs and, 145; for continuing education, 105–6; for funding, 106; for-profit higher education as, 88–89; on-line education and, 113–15; tuition increases and, 106–7...