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186 A quest for belonging Migration, identities and the politics of belonging in Africa Joseph Mujere INTRODUCTION There is a growing body of historical and anthropological literature on the subject of migration and the politics of belonging in Africa. The literature covers subjects such as land, autochthony, rootedness, and citizenship. This chapter explores the interplay between migration and perceptions of belonging. Migration brings about the question of how both ‘first comers’ and ‘late comers’ construct belonging. In recent years, studies on the politics of belonging have focused on the nature of relationships between the so-called ‘first comers’ or autochthons and ‘late comers’ or strangers (see Geschiere and Jackson 2006; Geschiere 2009; Geschiere and Nyamnjoh 2000; Geschiere 2005). These studies have revealed the often divisive and exclusionary nature of constructions of belonging. Notions of autochthony, in particular, have often been a powerful weapon in the hands of the political elites keen to remain in power by exploiting the division of people on autochthony-allogene basis. Yet belonging is not entirely about autochthony, or rootedness but it is also about how people use symbols and metaphors to claim rights to authority and resources. Using examples from Africa, this chapter examines the processes through which people construct, contest and articulate notions of belonging. The chapter contends that belonging is a contested and multi-layered phenomenon making it possible for people to have multiple notions of belonging. The first section explores the interface between migration and the politics of belonging in Africa. Due to its increasing salience in the politics of belonging, autochthony is one of the main trajectories of belonging analysed. The second section analyses the importance of land and graves in the construction of belonging among many African communities. It argues that land, graves and funerals are central to the construction and articulation of notions of belonging in most African societies. The chapter ends by discussing politics of belonging in the Zimbabwean context and their transformation from the pre-colonial era through to the postcolonial era. It also examines the impact of the 2 000 farm occupations on the constructions of citizenship and national belonging. CHAPTER 10 187 A QUEST FOR BELONGING MIGRATION, AUTOCHTHONY AND BELONGING Africa has had a long history of population movement dating back to the pre-colonial era. In fact, migration was one of the most important processes in the formation of new polities in pre-colonial Africa. According to Kopytoff (1989: 7), ‘Africa has been a “frontier continent” the stage for many population movements of many kinds and dimensions, ranging from such sub-continental proto-historical dispersions such as the Bantu or the Nilotes to the local movements preceding the colonial period.’ These migrations played an important role in state formation in pre-colonial Africa. It is, thus, plausible to argue that Africa’s history is a history of migrations (Adepoju 1995: 87).The main causes of migration in the pre-colonial era were ecological disasters such as droughts and epidemics, wars, trade and the search for new agricultural land (Adepoju 1995: 89). However, the nature and form of migrations have changed over time. With the introduction of the capitalist economy, ‘the urban and industrial expansion of the colonial and post colonial eras gave rise to migrations to towns, mines, and plantations, and, in the process, to a continuing reorganisation of ethnic identities’ says Kopytoff (1989:7). Studies on migrations in Africa have mostly focused on labour migrations especially in the colonial period. However, recently more attention has been paid to the link between migration, identity and belonging (see Ceuppens and Geschiere 2005). This shift has largely been influenced by the 1990s democratisation process in most African states which fuelled the desire among political elites to use autochthony as a political tool to exclude political opponents. Geschiere and Nyamnjoh (1998: 1) assert that, ‘democratisation seems to engender fierce and often violent struggles over who ”really” belongs and who is a stranger.’ This has led migration analysis to revolve around the impact of migration on identities, citizenship, and belonging and also the relationship between migrants and locals. This relationship has been marked by contested definitions of the ‘first comers’ and ‘late comers’, which have sometimes resulted in xenophobic violence. In Cameroon, political liberalisation induced a general fear among autochthons of being outvoted by the numerically superior immigrants as voting became more important with the dawn of multiparty democracy. According to Konings (2001: 170), ‘with the introduction of multi-partyism, the ruling party and government often fear being...

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