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PART I. THE MIDDLE AGES: FEUDALISM AND “LA SOCIÉTÉ COURTOISE”
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PART I The Middle Ages Feudalism And “La SociÉtÉ Courtoise” THE MIDDLE AGES, A PERIOD WHICH EXTENDED from about 400 to 1500, was breathtaking in its intellectual, scientific, political, social, commercial , and artistic achievements. Feudal leaders, having actively extended and consolidated their power in surrounding domains, brought fiefdoms into existence. They contracted with farmers to render them service in exchange for protection from marauders and invaders. As fiefs became hereditary and great landlords sought to increase their rights, political balance altered, leading ever so relentlessly to the diminution of the king’s authority. Meanwhile, fortified stone castles and monasteries, abbeys, and houses of worship dotted the landscape. Monastic life injected not only a note of stability in the politically uncertain climate of Europe, but was instrumental in preserving learning. Religious orders, namely, the Benedictines of Cluny (tenth century), the Cistercians (twelfth century), and Dominicans (thirteenth century), were known for their classical and patristic learning, for their asceticism, and for their high moral standards. Theologians and philosophers, such as Abélard and Hugh of Saint-Victor, taught at cathedral schools in Paris, which, thanks to the efforts of Robert de Sorbon, grew into the University of Paris. The resulting climate of intense intellectual, architectural, musical, and artistic fervor attracted other European teachers of note—Alexander of Hales, Bonaventura, Albertus Magnus, and Thomas Aquinas. Paris became not only the capital of France, but the mercantile center of northern Europe as well. 19 SP_KNA_ch01_019-060.qxd 10/15/02 9:19 AM Page 19 Religious fervor, in consort with the great building boom, led to the erection of memorable Gothic structures such as the spectacular cathedrals of Chartres, Rheims, Amiens, and Beauvais, and the choir of Saint-Denis (1140) in the royal abbey near Paris. Christianity became the chief unifying force following the disarray created by invading Saracens, Norsemen, Magyars , Germans, and Anglo-Saxons. As a result, popes such as Gregory VII and Innocent III acquired inordinate secular authority. The notion of chivalry, having allied itself with military, political, and religious institutions, paved the way for what has been alluded to as “divinely inspired violence,” or the Crusades. Pope Urban II, motivated to a great extent by St. Augustine’s writings, preached the first Crusade in l095 at the Council of Clermont. Ostensibly aimed at reconquering the Holy Land, the Crusades, lasting even until the latter part of the sixteenth century, turned into bloody massacres of Muslims and Jews, and pillagings of lands for material gain. The Black Plague, thought to have been brought to Europe by returning Crusaders, introduced the deadliest of dismal times to France. The Hundred Years’ War, the name appended to military battles waged between England and France from 1337 to 1453, resulted in the latter’s devastation. The emergence of a new feminine mystique was in the process of altering psychological and societal dividing lines between the sexes. The patriarchal nature of medieval chivalry, with its emphasis on military feats and male friendships as attested to in such epics as The Song of Roland (eleventh century ), was in the process of yielding its hegemony to a new zeitgeist. The increasingly popular courtly romances and love songs delivered by celebrated troubadours, such as Bernard de Ventadorn (twelfth century) answered an underlying need for increased equity in love relationships. Although hailing from the Limousin, Bernard spent much time at the court of Eleanor of Aquitaine (1122–1204). An intelligent, strong-minded woman, Eleanor married Louis VII only to have her sacramental bonds annulled, after which she wed Henry, duke of Normandy, later Henry II of England. Due to his infidelities , their relationship grew strained, and Eleanor established her own court at Poitiers in 1170. Known as the center of artistic creativity, it drew under Eleanor’s aegis such great figures as Wace, Benoit de Sainte-Maure, and Chrétien de Troyes. The emphasis placed on courtly manners encouraged the burgeoning and later preeminence of courtly love, with its special ritualized code. True love, or the fin d’amors doctrine, identified mainly with Christianity , motivated lovers to emulate godlike morality, aspire toward virtue, and devote themselves to the service of Lady Mary. The celebration of the oneness of woman’s celestial and earthly qualities increased the popularity of an already growing cult of the Virgin. Fals’amors, or false love, on the other 20 FRENCH FAIRY TALES [34.229.50.161] Project MUSE (2024-03-28 13:27 GMT) hand, the lot of the majority, was said to be plagued...