John Dewey and Environmental Philosophy

4. Dewey's (Moral) Holism

Dewey believed that changing conditions in the modern world called for a new approach to morality.1 His project was to direct moral thought away from an individualistic basis. The exclusive concentration on individuals isolated humans from each other,2 to speak nothing of nature. Morals have an affect on the individual of course, reflecting social forces, or what he called the social environment. Morality originally reflected social folkways and customs, but when these come into question, as they often have in the modern world, morals must be treated critically. It is the task of philosophy to supplement customs with rational ends.3 Dewey is critical of the separation of theory and practice, of knowing and doing by most of the philosophical tradition,4 as well as the separation of morals from the rest of practical activity. Instead of being extended to cover all forms of action by means of which all the values of life are extended and rendered more secure, including the diffusion of the fine arts and the cultivation of taste . . . and all activities which are concerned with rendering human relationships more significant and worthy, the meaning of ‘practical’ is limited to matters of ease, comfort, riches, bodily security . . . things which in their isolation from other goods can only lay claim to restricted and narrow value.5 Practice should rightly cover all activity; practice should be coextensive with morals. Morals are concerned with “all activity into which alternative possibilities enter,” that is, where “a difference between better and worse arises.” Dewey argues that this includes “potentially . . . every act” within the scope of morals insofar as better and worse alternatives for action present themselves, 4 DEWEY’S (MORAL) HOLISM|109| that is, almost always.6 The need for morals originates in the conflict of different ends, rights, and duties, and the office of morals is to reflect on and help resolve such conflicts over better and worse alternatives. Morality is not a special kind of action in this view, as its scope may take in all of action. Moral theory is an inquiry with the objective of expanding what makes life worthwhile , the good, throughout all human relationships. It is meliorist in the attempt to improve life through expanding the good.7 Dewey calls his method in moral theory “experimental.” “It implies that reflective morality demands observation of particular situations, rather than fixed adherence to a priori principles . . . for trying different measures so that their effects may be capable of observation and of comparison.”8 Close analysis of situations is emphasized over fixed principles in this method, a point Dewey will emphasize again and again.9 Trial and error are also used to determine effects or results, such that these can be evaluated. In short, the method involves tests for moral notions similar to and derivative from those in science, and involving the treatment of theories as hypotheses, experimental activities, and close observation of consequences. Dewey views such tests as both practically worthwhile and as a guard against stifling dogma, which precludes inquiry into moral questions.10 Moral principles are not rejected, however; they are used as tools to help deal with the situation. The correct role of principles , rules, and other moral maxims is instrumental for either understanding the situation better or helping resolve a problem perceived in it.11 Legitimate principles embody past experience; the appeal to extratemporal, immutable principles and ends are “without support.” Elements in the Problematic Value Situation Dewey analyzes the concrete situation in which valuations arise in some detail. The elements in this analysis will be treated distinctly below.12 However , their essential continuity and interconnections should be kept in mind. It should not be inferred from the analysis of elements of a valuing situation that the elements are somehow isolated from one another.The latter would be precisely the opposite of Dewey’s analysis because he frequently stresses both the continuity and the interrelations of these elements. The first element is a problematic situation itself. Normally, activity can take place based on the routine of habit and occasional impulse. Habits may reflect training, character, and established social conventions. However, problems may arise to upset this routine, some “trouble in the existing situation.” Both valuation and moral reflection arise in a problematic situation, in which the problem must be resolved and organic equilibrium restored.13 Until a disturbing situation arises, there is “no need, no desire, no valuation.” Such disturbances cause a temporary unease, but in the long run may have a...