The Cost of Being Poor: A Comparative Study of Life in Poor Urban Neighborhoods in Gary, Indiana

Notes

Notes Introduction 1. I adopt definitions of structure and agency used by William Wilson in When Work Disappears (1996), where structural forces are defined as “the ordering of social positions (or statuses) and networks of social relationships that are based on the arrangement of mutually dependent institutions (economy, polity, family, education) of society. Race . . . is also a social structural variable.” Agency, free will, or choice is broadly defined and correlated with “values, attitudes, habits, and styles” also referred to as culture (xiii–xiv). 2. This thesis is detailed in Chaper 2. Wilson (1996) provides a detailed presentation of the subject. 3. Refer to Aponte (1991), Bickford and Massey (1991), Kasarda (1989), Massey and Denton (1988, 1993), Pattillo-McCoy (1999), Quillian (1999), and Wilson (1987, 1996). 4. Bickford and Massey (1991), Massey and Denton (1988, 1993), and Quillian (1999). 5. Waldinger (1997) for details of exclusionary hiring processes in inner cities. 6. Aponte (1991) and Tienda and Stier (1996). 7. A parallel definition for the term is posited by Giddens (1984) in his structuration theory, where agency is defined as deliberate, purposed efforts of persons, thinking and acting, alone or as a group. 8. Use of the term “mainstream” reflects broadly defined notions of overarching values and behavior typically associated with the larger society. Examples include: adherence to laws, the desire to be employed, being a hard worker, use of “standard English,” and delayed gratification. These socially constructed norms, values, and behavior diversely manifest in the 227 larger society as well as in poor and near-poor urban settings (Drake and Cayton ([1945] 1962) and Wilson (1996). 9. Edin and Lein (1996), Newman (1999), and Stack (1974). 10. Drake and Cayton ([1945] 1962), Hannerz (1969), and Williams (1981). 11. Anderson (1999). 12. Alex-Assensoh (1993, 1995) and MacLeod (1995). 13. Patterson (1998) and Waldinger (1997). 14. Edin and Lein (1996) and Jarrett (1994). 15. Lewis (1996), Mead (1992), Murray (1984), and Ogbu (1978, 1991). 16. Also refer to McLanahan and Garfinkel (1989) and Ogbu (1978, 1991) for related themes. 17. According to Billingsley (1992), African Americans have been able to move from working class to middle class in a single generation due largely to the benefits of education. 18. Anderson (1990, 1999), Hochschild (1995), MacLeod (1995), Massey and Denton (1993), and Wilson (1987). 19. The following table provides a summary of 2002 census demographic data for several “rust-belt” cities that have experienced economic challenges similar to those found in Gary, Indiana. Although differences exist, (example, Flint, MI has substantially lower African American representation), the cities are quite similar in their current profiles. Summary Table of 2002 Census Figures Gary Detroit Flint % Female 54.2 52.9 53.0 % African American 84.0 81.6 53.3 Average HH size 2.66 2.77 2.51 % Married 34.1 31.2 35.7 % BA degrees 10.1 11.0 11.3 % in Labor Force 55.9 56.3 58.5 Median HH Income $27,195 $29,526 $28,015 Per Capita Income $14,393 $14,717 $15,733 % Families Below Poverty 22.2 21.7 22.9 % Individuals Below Poverty 25.8 26.1 26.4 228 Notes to Introduction Chapter One 1. The poverty threshold in 2002 for a family of three was $14,348 annually and $18,392 annually for a family of four. According to census figures , the 2002 national poverty rate was 9.6 percent (7.2 million people), which represented an increase from the 9.2 percent rate (6.8 million people) in 2001. Although the poverty rate for female householders increased during this same period (from 26.4 to 26.5 percent), the increase for married couples was relatively more dramatic (from 4.9 to 5.3 percent). In addition, about 40 percent of persons in poverty in 2002 either were employed full-time or part-time. Census data in 2002 show that, among the working-age poverty population, approximately 11.2 percent held full-time year-round jobs (Erickson 2003). 2. Wilson (1987) contends that the official poverty threshold severely underestimates the number of poor people in the United States. In addition, he suggests that most poor persons earn substantially less than the threshold figure. Refer to Quillan (1999) for residential trends in urban settings. Cutler, Glaeser, and Vigdor (1999) suggest that the period from 1890 to 1940 witnessed the birth of the ghetto. African American migration patterns coupled with negative White...