Into the Jaws of Yama, Lord of Death: Buddhism, Bioethics, and Death

8. The Ethical Urgency of Death

Chapter 8  The Ethical Urgency of Death Philosophical perspectives and popular beliefs about death and the nature of what occurs after death set the stage for an exploration of bioethical issues from Buddhist points of view. This exploration requires , first, an examination of traditional textual sources to see what they say about specific bioethical questions and, second, reflection on the application of Buddhist ethical ideals to current social and technological realities. Although Buddhist ethical theory is clear on certain issues, such as abortion, other issues such as an examination of the ethics of suicide and assisted suicide, organ transplantation, and stem cell research are less clear-cut. This reveals the complexity of biomedical ethics throughout and the variety of Buddhist perspectives both in the texts and in different Buddhist cultures. These cultures developed independently in far-flung regions of Asia among people who valued contemplation more than technology. In the absence of a central bureaucracy for vetting ideas, it was left to individual monks and monasteries to formulate Buddhist responses to ethical dilemmas. Today, as Buddhist ideas spread around the world, people from many different backgrounds are formulating new applications of Buddhist principles to address issues of common human concern. Many of the ethical dilemmas that arise as a result of advanced medical technologies are not specifically addressed in the ancient Buddhist texts, simply because these technologies did not exist when those texts were written. Buddha Íåkyamuni did not speak about genetic engineering or assisted reproduction, so any exploration of these dilemmas from a Buddhist perspective requires us to study them first 125 126 Into the Jaws of Yama, Lord of Death within the context of traditional Buddhist ethical theory as a whole and then to extrapolate from there. The Buddhist codes of ethics must be interpreted in view of such changes. In the absence of categorical imperatives and higher sources of authority, a critical analysis of these topics forces us to move beyond the received moral guidelines and to think in new, sometimes uncomfortable directions. The exercise is an essential and timely one, since new technologies are likely to continue appearing that will require Buddhists to stretch their thinking even further. Building the Framework: The Basis of Traditional Buddhist Ethics The Buddha taught an ethic of personal responsibility in which individuals are accountable for their actions as well as the results of their actions, the law of cause and effect. The precepts are guidelines for ethical conduct, rather than moral absolutes. Ethics are situational and relational, but there is a baseline for ordinary decision making and a moral consistency that underlies the various formulations of ethical precepts. Buddhists generally regard ethical (virtuous) actions as having an impact in three ways: they reduce the negative tendencies of the mind; they foster positive tendencies conducive to future happiness and liberation (nirvå£a); and they contribute to the harmonious functioning of society. Even though actions and attitudes are conditioned by circumstances and by predispositions resulting from actions created in the past, individuals are theoretically free to choose either wholesome actions that result in happiness or unwholesome actions that result in unhappiness. Maximizing the benefits of positive actions and mitigating the deleterious effects of negative actions are primary aims of Buddhist spiritual practice and Buddhist ethics, and these practical concerns are more important than theoretical concerns. Among the wide range of contemporary approaches to decision making among Buddhists, the common denominator is the principle of cause and effect. According to this principle, karma ripens inexorably and there is no way to escape the results of one’s deeds. No effect ripens without a cause, and, given suitable conditions, there is no cause that does not produce consequences. The effects of one’s actions cannot ripen on another person, and another person’s actions cannot ripen on you. Virtuous action can mitigate the intensity of the effects, but cannot cancel them out altogether. This general explication of the workings of cause and effect is common to all Buddhists traditions. Four specific criteria determine when an action is complete and will therefore result in the fullest possible consequences: object, inten- The Ethical Urgency of Death 127 tion, action, and completion of the action. First, one must ascertain the object of the action, for example, a frog. Second, one must generate the intention to commit the action, for example, the intention to kill the frog. Third, one must carry through with the action; in...