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1 Introduction Plotinus (ad 204–205) and the Presocratic thinkers (ad c. 6th–5th c.) designate the historical boundaries of ancient Greek philosophy. Whereas the Presocratics determine the beginning of Greek philosophy, Plotinus initiates the last period of Greek intellection which is usually marked by the closure of Plato’s Academy in Athens by the emperor Justinian (ad 529). Plotinus’ philosophy is a clear innovation in the development of Platonism and for this reason his work is regarded as the beginning of the Neoplatonic movement. His thought assimilates nearly eight centuries of philosophy and intellectual history , and the attentive reader of the Enneads is able to detect various direct and indirect citations of ancient authors from the Presocratic, Classical and Hellenistic periods. Plotinus mentions by name leading Greek philosophers spanning these centuries such as Pherecydes, Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, Heraclitus, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, the Stoics, and the Epicureans. It is noteworthy that Plotinus never refers by name to any philosopher later than Epicurus. Despite the fact that the Presocratic philosophers are present in the Enneads , in modern scholarship on Plotinus, scant attention has been paid to the Presocratic origins of his thought. As well as the lack of consideration of Presocratics in the Enneads, the general attitude is deflationary, but a detailed study of the text points in the opposite direction. Plotinus’ references to the Presocratics are not without purpose and significance. In many cases, he refers directly to eminent Presocratic thinkers along with Plato and sometimes Aristotle in the same respectful manner and without making any distinction regarding their philosophical ability and authority. Particularly, throughout the Enneads, Plotinus refers by name four times to Heraclitus, five times to Empedocles , twice to Parmenides and Anaxagoras, four times to Pythagoras and the early Pythagorean School and once to Pherecydes. In addition, there are a large number of indirect allusions to other important Presocratics such as Anaximander, Philolaus, and the early Atomists. These direct and indirect references show the Presocratics appearing in different areas of Plotinus’ philosophy. Plotinus returns to Presocratic accounts in his discussions of (1) the One and the unity of Being; (2) the structure of the living Intellect and the predicates of Being; (3) the nature of eternity and time; and (4) the life of the ensouled bodies and the formation of the material world. Within this framework, Plotinus’ One, the First Hypostasis of Being, is to some extent foreshadowed by the concept of the Presocratic first principle found in Heraclitus’ One, Empedocles’ Philia, the Pythagorean Monad and Anaxagoras’ Mind. Plotinus’ self-thinking Intellect, the Second Hypostasis of Being, reflects the predicates of Parmenides’ Being, the fundamental ontological connection between thinking and being and Anaxagoras’ self-inclusiveness principle. The non-durational nature of eternity is strongly influenced by Parmenides’ timelessness of Being and the association of eternity with the life of Intellect may be traced back to Heraclitus’ concept of ever-living fire and Empedocles’ eternal life. With regard to the Soul, the Third Hypostasis of Being, the descent of living bodies reflects Heraclitus’ cosmic alterations of soul and Empedocles’ cycles of the daimōn. Furthermore, Presocratic self-knowledge is for Plotinus the goal of the Soul’s ascent to the One, and the unity of Plotinus’ universe echoes the unity of the Presocratic cosmos. Finally, Plotinus interacts with Presocratic concepts of matter found in Anaximander’s apeiron, Empedocles’ theory of the four roots, Anaxagoras’ primordial mixture and early Atomic materialism. In the detailed analysis of these topics, the aim of this monograph is threefold: (1) to reinstate the significance of the Presocratic tradition for Plotinus ; (2) to offer a comparative philosophical study between fundamental Presocratic and Plotinian concepts; and (3) to suggest possible new references to Presocratic fragments within the Enneads, beyond those mentioned in modern studies and commentaries. In pursuit of this aim, the thesis will focus mainly on the following Enneads, since they include the most striking references to the Presocratics: II.1 [40] On Heaven; II.4 [12] On Matter; III.7 [45] On Eternity and Time; IV.8 [6] On the Descent of the Soul into the Bodies; V.1 [10] On the Three Primary Hypostases; and VI.6 [34] On Numbers. A study of these treatises forms the kernel of the book, although the research extends to relevant passages throughout the Enneads. The main Presocratics involved are Heraclitus , Parmenides, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, the early Pythagoreans, and the early Atomists, since Plotinus refers directly to them and...

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