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122 CH APTER EIGHT The Path of Works Karmamārga In ancient days the Lord of creatures created people along with sacrifice and said: “By this shall you bring forth and this shall be unto you that which will yield the milk of your desires.” —Bhagavadgītā III, 10 In February 1962 Indian newspapers were carrying numerous articles describing measures to meet a predicted aṣṭagraha, a particular astronomical conjunction of earth, sun, moon, and the five major planets. The astrologers were unanimous in considering it an exceedingly evil omen—possibly the harbinger of the end of the world. Some journalists were serious; others tried to joke a little; none dared to call the whole thing a humbug. Quite apart from the fact that astronomically speaking the aṣṭagraha was not quite accurate, millions of Hindus were frankly worried, expecting a ghastly catastrophe. Many sold all their belongings and went to Prayāga or Kāśī or to some other holy place from whence one goes directly to heaven at the time of death or where one can attain mokṣa. The rich engaged thousands of Pandits and Brahmins to organize Vedic yajñas that would go on for weeks and weeks on end, reciting millions of Vedic mantras. The dreaded event passed without a major disaster. What had happened? The world had been saved through the creation of the auspicious karma produced in the ritual appropriate for the occasion. Ritual is one of the most prominent and most important features of Hinduism , and it has two main sources: the Vedic and the Āgamic traditions.1 For the sake of a more methodical presentation a separate treatment of Vedic ritual, as it emerges from the classical texts, will be given here before describing other forms that are more popular today. The rationale of both of these forms THE PATH OF WOR KS 123 of ritual, as expressed in the Pūrva-Mīmāṃsā system ad the Āgamic treatises is quite different too, as shall be seen. THE V EDIC WAY TO HEAV EN Quite early in the Veda the distinction was drawn between the karma-kāṇḍa and the jñāna-kānda, the part dealing with “works” and the part dealing with “knowledge,” different not only in their contents but also in their ultimate aims. The aim of the karma-kāṇḍa is found within triloka, the tripartite universe of heaven, earth, and netherworlds. It promises bliss and wealth, and a sojourn in svarga, a heaven with earthly pleasure, as the highest goal after death. Jñāna-kāṇḍa is neither interested in things of this earth nor in heaven; it wants insight into, and communion with, a reality that is nonsensual and not transient: brahman. It was meant for those who had given up all worldly liabilities , with interests that went beyond wife and children, house and property, business and entertainment. The householder living within his family circle had to choose karmamārga to secure for him what he needed and wished for, and also in order to conform to the social pattern established upon a firm basis of ritual. Later theorists try to demonstrate that the two elements, the life of the householder and the life of the houseless, constituted the even balance of an ideal social order. In reality there was and is considerable friction and competition between the two. There are texts in which the householder is praised as the one who provides nourishment for all, and there are other texts that speak of the spiritual merit that the whole society derives from the samnyāsis’ efforts; but there is also ample evidence of householders’ polemics against samnyāsa, which was considered by many an exaggeration, said to go against the śāstras and to be a violation of the basic duties ordered by the Vedas.2 The householder knew that everything depended on his work; what was true for food and drink and shelter was assumed to be true of sunshine and rain, of happiness and ill luck too. Religion for him was work that, when properly done, produced its fruits. From that basic consideration there developed an intricate system and a theology of sacrifice, which explained everything as being the result of ritual, yajña, including the creation of the universe.3 As the importance of the proper performance of religious work rose, so did the importance of the Brahmins, the professionals of ritual sacrifice. An explanation may be required to prevent a possible...

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