Interpreters as Diplomats: A Diplomatic History of the Role of Interpreters in World Politics

CHAPTER 2 Europe and the New World, to 1919

CHAPTER 2 EUROPE AND THE NEW WORLD, TO 1919 Europe We have seen how bilingual Greek scholars, steeped in Byzantine diplomatic lore, relocated to the four corners of Europe and, in the greatest numbers, to Venice. From them the Venetians learned the art of diplomacy, transmitted what they had learned to the other Italian city-states, and thence to the capitals of Europe. The word "Byzantine," signifying the ultimate in deviousness and duplicity, has ever since been applied to Italian city-state diplomacy. The association is valid in the most literal sense, for European diplomacy, as an art, is of Byzantine origin. No governments of antiquity had maintained resident diplomats in foreign lands, but had appointed them adhoc, for special missions as needed. True diplomacy, of the modern type, began only with the custom of assigning permanent representatives to other nations. Although the Vatican had introduced such a resident mission (theApocrisarius) toByzantium as early as A.D. 453, the first true state mission is considered to have been that sent by the Duke of Milan to Cosimo de' Medici in 1450 (Nicolson 1954:32-34). Until about 100 years later, these emissaries were known not as "ambassadors" but as "resident orators," a title that is significant. For linguistic ability, not social status, was the first requirement of the early diplomat. Barbers, chemists and merchants frequently served in such capacity, until the Vatican began to insist that these careers be reserved for the nobility. 41 INTERPRETERS AS DIPLOMATS One of the more usual entrees to ambassadorial status from the late medieval period was the post of courier, and the names of nearly 300 of these men have been recorded (Allen 1972). Serving as messenger was the best way to pick up a number of languages,beyond the one or two with which one might have started out. John Spritewell, courier to Elizabeth I, whose primary sphere of operation had been the ChannelWestern Europe route, could speak French, Spanish, Dutch and German, as well as English. Unfortunately, many of these persons were eccentric, or unstable, depending upon one's point of view. The career,being a glamorous and ofttimes dangerous one, had tended to attract men of unconventional type. Some of them, drinking to excess, blabbed state secrets while in their cups, or they overslept and, quite literally, missed the boat (zW.:32-33). Gradually, all European nations developed messenger services , which are still very much in use. The corps of King's Foreign Messengers in Britain, as distinct from the internal service, was founded in 1772, with 16messengers. Their numbers , and the frequency of journeys abroad, varied from year to year. In 1802, for example, there were 26 foreign journeys and 12 years later, 80, but the number of messengers declined from a high of 20 in 1824 to only six by 1914. All applicants were required to be not over 35 years of age and competent in foreign languages. Several of them lost their lives in the line of duty, and one Andrew Basilica distinguished himself by eating his dispatch when captured by the French in 1782 (WheelerHolohan 1935:26,34-35,52-92). Because, in premodern times, it was actually considered undesirable for an ambassador to be a subject of the king who employed him, there grew up over the years a sizeable circle of professional diplomats who, meandering about Europe, served various monarchs in turn. Many of them were Italian, probably because modern diplomacy was born in the Vatican and in the surrounding city-states during the Renaissance. One Franz Paul von Lisola, of Italian origin but Frencheducated and a citizen of Spain, had held diplomatic posts for at least seven different European governments1 (Roosen 1976:65). Among Italians employed as ambassadors by the English court in the 13th century was Sir Nicolin de Flisco, 42 EUROPE AND THE NEW WORLD, TO 1919 Antonio di Passano and Andrea de Portinari, while Henry VIII, three centuries later, also had an Italian representing him in the Netherlands (Cuttino 1971:133, 139; Nicolson 1954:3234 ). William III often chose Dutchmen, French Huguenots or Swiss, while Louis XIV used a German in Sweden and an Italian and a German in Italy (Roosen 1976:65). Such men, as well as their bi- or multilingual secretaries, could obviously constitute "security risks" if they worked successively for two monarchs who were mutually hostile. In time, as the governments of Europe became more sensitive...