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103 Suisun Marsh has long been a favored place for waterfowl (ducks, geese, and swans). Before the first duck clubs were established in 1879, market hunters had used the Marsh for at least 20 years, and they continued to hunt it until market hunting was outlawed in 1918 with the passage of the Migratory Bird treaty Act. Suisun Marsh’s proximity to San Francisco allowed market hunters to get their vast harvest to market relatively quickly by boat. During a single hunting season in 1911–12, an estimated 250,000 ducks were sold in San Francisco markets from all sources, and 350,000 ducks were sold statewide (Garone 2011). The west side of Suisun Marsh had the first duck clubs, apparently for both the quality of hunting and the ease of access. in 1879, the Southern Pacific Company completed a railroad through the west side of the Marsh from Benicia to Suisun City, but it required constant and costly maintenance because it sank repeatedly into the Marsh (Arnold 1996; Garone 2011). Most sport duck hunters in those days were wealthy, because it was costly both to travel to the Marsh from San Francisco and to lease hunting rights. Decisions about railroad placement and continued maintenance may have been at least partly due to the influence of wealthy duck hunters (Arnold 1996). Access became easier after the 1913 opening of the railroad along the east side of the Marsh, and the establishment of duck clubs followed (Arnold 1996). From 1880 to 1930, with the arrival of railroads and construction of levees to restrain tidal water flow, much of Suisun Marsh was converted to agriculture. However, the success of agriculture was relatively short lived, because increasing soil salinity, at least partially a result of upstream water diversions to irrigate farms in the Central valley, made agriculture unprofitable. 5 Waterfowl ecology and Management Joshua t. Ackerman, Mark P. Herzog, Gregory S. yarris, Michael L. Casazza, edward Burns, and John M. eadie 104 Waterfowl Ecology and Management Ultimately, much of the recently reclaimed farmland was converted back into wetland habitats for duck hunting clubs. today, Suisun Marsh is one of the largest contiguous brackish marshes in the western United States and contains 12% of the remaining natural wetlands in California. The continuity and abundance of wetlands in the Marsh is attributable to efforts by duck hunters interested in maintaining high-quality waterfowl habitat. today, 75% is privately owned and managed for waterfowl habitat and hunting opportunities, usually at considerable expense to the landowners (Gill and Buckman 1974). The majority of these privately held wetlands are managed in consultation with the Suisun Resource Conservation District. Presently, the 158 privately owned duck hunting clubs in Suisun Marsh, together with the California Department of Fish and Wildlife’s Grizzly island Wildlife Area, provide over 21,000 ha of wetland habitats.1 These diked wetlands are managed to control the daily tidal influence, reduce salt accumulation in the soil, and promote food production for waterfowl. in particular, the Marsh provides important wetland resources during early winter migration (September–november), when many waterfowl have arrived in California but when other wetlands are not yet flooded in the Central valley. Suisun Marsh also provides waterfowl habitats during drought periods, when other Central valley wetlands are limited. oveRvieW: WinteR inG WAteRFoWL Population Trends California, and in particular the Central valley, is a major wintering area for waterfowl in north America. nearly 5 million ducks, geese, and swans winter within California, accounting for 68% of the wintering waterfowl in the Pacific Flyway. importantly, 41% of the north American breeding population of northern pintail (see table 5.1 for scientific names of birds) winters in California.2 Suisun Marsh plays an important role in relation to its size (470 km2 or 116,000 acres), supporting more than 60,000 wintering waterfowl each year (table 5.1). Wintering waterfowl populations have been surveyed annually in California since 1953 by the California Department of Fish and Game (now Department of Fish and Wildlife) in conjunction with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). We used these midwinter waterfowl population indices3 to assess long1 . http://www.water.ca.gov/suisun/ 2. Based on mean midwinter waterfowl population size indices, 2000–09. 3. Midwinter waterfowl data were collected by the California Department of Fish and Game and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and were kindly provided by Dan yparraguirre, Shaun oldenburger, Mike Wolder, and Cheryl Strong. The midwinter waterfowl index represents an estimated population abundance...

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