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249 APPENDIX ONE outline Classification of Afrasian (Afroasiatic): diagnostic branch innovations i. omotic defining innovations a. Merging of Proto-Afrasian (PAA) labiovelars with velars except before the vowel *i b. Asymmetrical devoicing of two PAA voiced affricates (*j > *c, *dz > z) ii. Erythraic defining innovations found in both Cushitic and north Erythraic but not in omotic a. Merging of PAA voiced and voiceless affricates into one voiced and one voiceless consonant (PAA *j and *dz > *dz; *c and *ts > *ts) b. Co-occurrence constraint disallowing two different labial consonants in same root c. shi to assigning grammatical gender to nouns in place of PAA marking only of natural gender d. new masc./fem. 3rd person singular pronouns, *su/*si e. new masc./fem. 3rd person plural pronoun, *sun/*sin f. new 2nd person subordinate masc./fem. pronouns, *ku, *ki A. Cushitic defining innovations a. PAA *b > *m preceding *n as the 2nd consonant in a root b. devoicing of PAA *g to *k following *d or *w in the same root b. north Erythraic defining innovation a. reduction of the vowels from a PAA system of ten long and short vowels (*i, *ii, *e, *ee, *a, *aa, *o, *oo, *u, and *uu) to a system of one back, one front, and two central vowels (*u, *i, *a, and *ə) 250 Appendix 1 1. Chado-berber defining innovations a. innovated pronoun shapes1 b. Lexical innovations2 2. boreafrasian defining innovations a. development of an array of co-occurrence constraints against sequences of sibilants in the same root b. Merging of velar and palatal nasals with *n noTEs 1. P. newman, e Classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic (Leiden: Universitaire Pers, 1980). 2. James bynon, “berber and Chadic: e Lexical Evidence,” in J. bynon (ed.), Current Progress in Afro-Asiatic Linguistics: Papers of the ird International Hamito-Semitic Congress (Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John benjamins, 1984), pp. 241–290, lists a large number of old root words shared by ProtoChadic and Proto-berber, at least four of which, for “know,” “drink,” “wind,” and “breast,” stand out as innovations unique to the core vocabularies of these two branches. ...

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