The Economy of the Greek Cities: From the Archaic Period to the Early Roman Empire

2. The World of Agriculture

two The World of Agriculture 67 Throughout antiquity, agriculture remained the basis of city economies. As in all barely mechanized rural societies, Greek agriculture required a large workforce, especially at harvesting and grape-picking times, and it occupied a large majority of the population, probably at least 80 percent. Agriculture provided a high proportion of the raw materials for craftsmen and for commerce . It shaped landscapes, marked societies, and pervaded customs and mores. Throughout history, it remained par excellence the domain of citizens’ activity, for it was they who, collectively and publicly, possessed the land, always considering land ownership to be their more or less exclusive right. On many occasions, they even took political decisions designed to provide land for citizens who lacked it. This was effected either by dividing up existing plots or else by founding colonies or cleruchies (allotting plots of land [kl− eroi] situated outside the city). Throughout history, land ownership had always constituted the basis of most large fortunes. More than any other economic activity, work on the land was stamped with ethical values (see above, p. 30), conservatism, and routine. It followed the unchanging rhythm of the seasons, festivals , and rituals. Permanent fear of drought and diseases affecting crops and herds encouraged agricultural workers to stick to well-tried approaches rather than take any risks. Virtually everywhere, natural conditions (see above, pp. 15–18) imposed the constraints of intensive dry agriculture, whose yields could be increased only by maximizing exploitation of the arable land and increasing the labor force. Yet, though there were common features, the world of agriculture was neither uniform nor static. Soils and rainfall varied from one region to another, necessitating adaptations and choices. Types of agriculture and agricultural properties varied and, over the years, they evolved. Up until the third century b.c., pressures of demography and urbanization led cities to enlarge the area of agricultural land. As we have seen above (pp. 18–20), techniques for processing agricultural produce did make some progress. From the classical period onward, methods of cultivation also improved: witness the appearance of agronomy, botany, and diet manuals, and the Greeks who experimented with adapting new species to production in the Egyptian Faiyum during the third century b.c. AGRICULTURAL LABOR AND PRODUCTS The Crops Over the centuries, the classic Mediterranean triad of crops (cereals, vines, and olive trees) had become well established. That triad always did preponderate, but the Greeks grew other 68 / The World of Agriculture types of produce too, leguminous plants in particular. Agricultural tasks demanded constant attention throughout the year. Their rhythm was dictated by the Mediterranean climate. The cultivation of cereals went back to the Neolithic period. The two dominant varieties were wheat (pyros) and barley (krithai). The Greeks lumped them together, using the general term sitos (which is therefore better translated as “grain” or “cereals,” rather than “wheat”). A type of soft wheat, the equivalent of our top-quality wheat, did exist, but hard wheat was more common. Wheat required better soil and greater humidity than barley, whose deeper roots helped it ripen more rapidly and yield better harvests. The most widely cultivated variety corresponded to today’s winter barley. After the grain harvests (April–June), land was generally left to lie fallow for over a year. In the spring, when the rains diminished, the land was prepared by early plowing: a plow (or a hoe) dug into the soil, tearing up and burying stubble and weeds, which served as a green fertilizer . More plowing, with a similar purpose and to enrich the soil, was undertaken during the summer. The first autumn rains signaled the sowing of seed, following a preliminary plowing that opened up furrows and a second that covered the seeds with earth. (The harrow did not appear until later.) The rains of winter promoted germination, and the plants were weeded. Harvesting took place at the start of the dry season, barley in April and May (at least in warmer regions) and wheat in May and June. After the harvest came flailing, winnowing, and storage of the grain. Along with barley and wheat, two varieties of millet were frequently cultivated. Millet was sown in the spring and ripened during the summer. A number of attempts have been made to estimate the yield of cereal cultivation on the basis of the few figures The World of Agriculture / 69 we possess for Attica, but the hypotheses constructed in...