Meaning and Moral Order: Explorations in Cultural Analysis

CHAPTER SIX. Social Selection Among Ideological Forms

CHAPTER SIX Social Selection Among Ideological Forms One purpose of examining ideologies in relation to the social environment is to account for part of the wide variation evident in ideological forms. As suggested in the previous chapter, ideologies are vastly diverse , but not as diverse in any given social setting as we might imagine them to be. Some ideologies seem to be better suited to particularenvironments than others. We can therefore make some headway toward understanding the culture in which we live by consideringhow different environments reinforce certain ideologies and hinder others. An essential starting point for this kind of investigationis the assumption that a multitude of ideologies exist at some time, with some eventually perishing and others surviving.This assumption is usually satisfied by the fact that disruptions in the moral order, from whichuncertainties about social relations arise, generally result in a number of new ideologies , all of which compete with one another to redefine the situation. This competition does not consist of mere philosophical debates but involves claims on social resources—moral claimsarticulated as part of an operative ideology. The manner in which social resources are distributed,therefore , should be consequential for the types of ideologies selected. This formulation of the problem requires no assumptions about interests or legitimation. Questions about interests and legitimation can still be raised, but as potential consequences of ideology. Too often these questions have substituted for careful consideration of the conditions that lead ideologies to be in existence in the first place. These conditions may be quite different from the functions an ideology fulfills. 186 Social Selection Among Ideological Forms 187 Because the present approach to the study of ideology is in many respects new, it probably makes sense to begin with some fairly simple distinctions. Environments can be distinguished along relatively simple dimensions, and these variations can be associated with some broad differences in ideological iorms. If persuasive at this level, the models can always be expanded by introducing additional dimensions and more elaborate distinctions. This chapter examines three ideological forms that are not only of some interest themselves but also permit illustration of some simple propositions about the effects of social environments: folk piety, individualism, and rationality. Considering these ideological forms will also provide occasion to introduce some further ideas about the internal structure of ideological systems. FOLK PIETY AND FUNDAMENTALISM Studies of contemporary culture have come increasingly to recognize the importance of what has been termed "folk piety." Whereas formalreligion is characterized by codified doctrines, ecclesiastical organizations, and a professional clergy, folk piety consists of relatively amorphous beliefs , is extraecclesiastical, and is located among the common people (Vrijhof and Waardenburg, 1979). Folk piety tends to be syncretistic, drawing simultaneously from indigenous folklore (the "little tradition," in Redfield's [1956] terms) and the more formalized symbols ("great tradition ") associated with historical or world religions (cf. Scott, 1977). Symbols are drawn from a wide variety of common sources—nature, work, food, music—rather than systematic theology; yet these symbols are distinguished from ordinary folklore in that they incorporate beliefs about divine or supernatural intervention in the realm of everyday experience . Examples include beliefs about demons and witchcraft, spiritualism , astrology, magic, miracles, and superstitions. In a valuable introduction to the study of folk piety, Williams (1980:65) identifies six subject headings under which the beliefs and practices of folk piety can be classified: food, health and sickness, major transitions in the life cycle, death and the dead, predictions of the future, and problems of evil and misfortune. These categories also provide a basis for discussing the relations between folk piety and the social environment. Folk piety has been most evident in relatively nonmodern situations. Studies of medieval and early modern Europe, of Third World countries, and of traditional settlements in North America, such as Amish and Hutterite communities, give ample testimony to the importance of popular super- 188 Social Selection Among Ideological Forms stitions, charms and amulets, stories of miraculous happenings, and so forth.1 The implied conclusion is that folk piety fails to adapt well to the modern environment. Yet more recent research has begun to challenge this inference. Numerous studies now suggest that folk piety may be remarkably robust even in the most modernized settings.Beliefs in astrology and extrasensory communication, contact with the dead and out-ofbody experiences, superstitions about lucky numbers, mystical experiences , and trances, not to mention the quasi-sacred character of many holidays, sports events...