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117 c h a p t e r fou r Topoi It is long since I received a letter from you. You will allege, perhaps, you have nothing to write: but let me have the satisfaction at least of seeing it under your hand, or tell me merely in the good old style of exordium, “If you are well, I am so.” I shall be contented even with that; as indeed that single circumstance from a friend includes every thing. You may possibly think I jest: but believe me I am extremely in earnest. Let me know how it is with you; for I cannot be ignorant of that, without the utmost anxiety. Farewell. —p l i n y , letter to Fabius Justus Letters are distinguished not only by their particular materiality, structure, and phraseology but also by epistolary topoi, or “commonplaces .”1 Unlike epistolary phrases, these elements of a letter are characterized not so much by set expressions but rather by set ideas or sentiments. They may or may not be expressed in fixed phrases and usually concern the affirmation of the correspondents’ relationship. Epistolary topoi commonly occur in the frame of a letter but frequently penetrate the main text as well, where they help to enhance a letter’s epistolarity by emphasizing its dialogicity as well as the amalgamation of interpersonal concerns with other communicative intentions . The employment of certain commonplaces is vital for successful epistolary communication, especially in delicate situations such as condolences. Despite their overwhelming conventionality, epistolary topoi should thus not be dismissed as mere rhetorical clichés. Not only do some authors display astonishing variation and sophistication in wielding these topoi, but many of the topoi themselves articulate authentic human experiences that are at the heart of life and literature. This chapter introduces three complex topoi that arise from the epistolary situation: the lament of separation, the perception of letters as substitutes for face-to-face conversation, and evocations of the insufficiency of one’s letter along with that of language and writing Epistolary Conventions and Literary Individuality 118 in general. These topoi may all be interpreted as manifestations of the self-referentiality of a letter, for, as Roger Chartier so succinctly expressed it, “the real subject matter of letter-writing is the writing of the letters.”2 It will become evident that these topoi are commingled in many ways. One reason for their interrelatedness is that they are all expressions of close relationships, situated in the continuum of kinship and friendship relations.3 Since only a small part of the transmitted letters are correspondences between family members and epistolary evidence for marital relations is almost nonexistent, much of the epistolary literature from early medieval China could be described as letters of friendship. This concept embraces very different aspects of human relationships: they are self-chosen (which may extend to family members), nonhierarchical (which does not exclude partners of different social standing), built on trust, based on the recognition of personality (or “understanding” the other),4 enjoy a certain personal autonomy, and are dedicated to mutual support. Many discussions of the notion of friendship, whether in the East or the West, focus on the last, utilitarian criterion and its implications for the character of a friendship, assuming that “pure” friendship is incompatible with the pursuit of personal or familial benefits. This seems to be an unproductive approach, because it confuses the establishment of an ideal with its realization in social practice. Although early Chinese literature created narratives of friendship unblemished by utilitarian purposes, a concept that remained powerful in later periods as well—as, not the least, early medieval letters prove— actual friendships were formed and tested in a sober reality, meaning , as Thomas Jansen put it, “in a society where political and social prominence was increasingly dependent on connections to the court or the participation in webs of patronage, the ability to form ‘beneficial friendships’ (yiyou 益友), to use Confucius’ own words, [was] essential for every person hoping to achieve political influence.”5 However, this “setting in life” of every friendship does not mean that it is determined primarily by the pursuit of benefit, which is, after all, only one of its features.6 Letters from early medieval China do not meditate on friendship in an analytical or systematic way. There is no essay about friendship in letter form, but there are many amicable letters, each an instantiation of friendship. This quality is reflected not so much in the subject matter of these letters but...

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