A Moveable Empire: Ottoman Nomads, Migrants, and Refugees

Notes

141 Notes 1. empire, state, and people 1 The other four areas of nomadic pastoralism are Africa south of the Sahara, the desert zones of Arabia, the Eurasian steppes, and the Tibetan plateau. The five zones are distinguished by the types of animals raised and the types of economic and political relations the nomadic communities maintained with sedentary populations and the outside world. Thomas Barfield, The Nomadic Alternative (Englewoods Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1993), 7–8. 2 For a masterly description of these early migrations and their integration into Anatolia, see Claude Cahen, Pre-Ottoman Turkey (New York: Taplinger, 1968). 3 As late as in 1950, before the big injection of machinery into Turkish agriculture , there were about 315,000 permanent agricultural workers in Turkey and more than 550,000 migrant workers. Eva Hirsch, Poverty and Plenty on the Turkish Farm (New York: Middle East Institute of Columbia University, 1970), 246. As Claude Cahen showed, these patterns have been remarkably consistent over a very long period. Cahen, Pre-Ottoman Turkey, 175–87. See also Çağlar Keyder, “Cycle of Sharecropping and the Consolidation of Small Peasant Ownership in Turkey,” Journal of Peasant Studies 10, no. 2–3 (1983): 131–45. 4 Paul Wittek, The Rise of the Ottoman Empire (London: Royal Asiatic Society, 1938); Fuad Köprülü, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun Kuruluşu (Istanbul: Ötüken, 142 Notes to Empire, State, and People 1981). More recent additions to this discussion are Rudi Lindner, Nomads in Medieval Ottoman Anatolia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1983); Colin Imber, “The Ottoman Dynastic Myth,” Turcica 19 (1987): 7–27; Cemal Kafadar, Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State (Berkeley : University of California Press, 1995); and Heath Lowry, The Nature of the Early Ottoman State (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2003). 5 For example, Faruk Sümer treated Oğuz and Türkmen as synonomous and declared that the mental makeup of modern Anatolian Turks was identical to that of their Oğuz ancestors. He claimed that in the thousand-year history connecting Turkey to the Oğuz tribe, non-Turkish elements made no contribution whatsoever. Faruk Sümer, Oğuzlar (Türkmenler) Tarihleri- Boy Teşkilatı-Destanları (Istanbul: Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Vakfı, 1980), xiv, xviii. For a summary of this literature and the way the debates in Europe influenced it, see Colin Heywood, “Boundless Dreams of the Levant: Paul Wittek, the Geroge-Kreis, and the Writing of Ottoman History,” Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society 1 (1988): 7–25; and Halil Berktay, Cumhuriyet İdeolojisi ve Fuat Köprülü (Istanbul: Kaynak, 1983). 6 Ömer Lütfi Barkan, “Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Bir İskân ve Kolonizasyon Metodu Olarak Vakıflar ve Temlikler: I. İstila devirlerinin Kolonizator Türk Dervişleri ve Zaviyeler,” Vakİflar Dergisi 2 (1942): 279–386. 7 Rudi Lindner wrote that by the end of the fourteenth century, tribal form had ceased to be relevant for the Ottomans. Rudi Lindner, “What Was the Nomadic Tribe?” Comparative Studies in Society and History 25 (1982): 709. See also his Nomads in Medieval Ottoman Anatolia. 8 On this point, see Hakan Özoğlu, Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Boundaries (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2004). Also see Baki Öz, Osmanlı’ da Alevi Ayaklanmaları (Istanbul: Ant, 1992), and Fariba Zarinebaf-Shahr, “Qızılbash ‘Heresy’ and Rebellion in Ottoman Anatolia during the Sixteenth Century,” Anatolia Moderna 7 (1997): 1–15. 9 Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1958). The best-known modern scholar who has used Ibn Khaldun extensively in his study of Muslim societies in North Africa is Ernest Gellner, in his Muslim Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981). 10 Cornell Fleischer, “Royal Authority, Dynastic Cyclism and ‘Ibn Khaldûnism’ in Sixteenth-Century Letters,” in Ibn Khaldun and Islamic Ideology, ed. Bruce Lawrence (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1984), 46–68. 11 Simon Schama, The Embarrassment of Riches (New York: Knopf, 1987), 581–82. 12 Isabel Fonseca, Bury Me Standing: The Gypsies and Their Journey (New York: Knopf, 1995), 229. 13 For example, Denis Diderot, Supplément au voyage de Bougainville (Paris, 1796), cited in Dorinda Outram, The Enlightenment (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 67. Notes to A Moveable Empire 143 14 Karl Marx, “The Future Results of the British Rule in India,” in Karl Marx, Surveys from Exile (London: Penguin...