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2 The Antarctic Treaty SUMMARY AND ANALYSIS The Antarctic Treaty, the earliest of the post–World War II arms limitation agreements, has significance both in itself and as a precedent. It internationalized and demilitarized the Antarctic continent and provided for its cooperative exploration and future use. It has been cited as an example of nations exercising foresight and working in concert to prevent conflict before it develops. Based on the premise that to exclude armaments is easier than to eliminate them once they have been introduced, the treaty served as a model, in its approach and provisions , for later “nonarmament” treaties including, for example, the treaties that excluded nuclear weapons from outer space and from the seabed, as well as the nuclear-weapon-freezone (NWFZ) treaties, which now collectively establish the land area of the Southern Hemisphere as off limits for nuclear weapons.Those NWFZ treaties, the treaties of Tlateloco (Latin America), Rarotonga (South Pacific), Pelindaba (Africa), and Bangkok (South Asia), now embrace some 110 nations. By the 1950s, seven nations (Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom) had claimed sovereignty over areas of Antarctica, based on discovery, exploration, or geographic proximity. The claims of Argentina, Chile, and the United Kingdom overlapped. Eight other nations (the United States, the Soviet Union, Belgium, Germany, Poland, Sweden, Japan, and South Africa) had engaged in exploration but had put forward no specific claims.The United States did not recognize the claims of other governments and reserved the right to assert claims based on exploration by its citizens.The Soviet Union took a similar position. Activities in the Antarctic had generally been conducted peacefully and cooperatively.Yet the possibility that exploitable economic resources might be found posed the possibility of future rivalry for their control. Moreover, although isolated and uninhabited, the continent could at some time become a potential site for emplacing nuclear weapons.Fortunately,scientific interests, rather than political, economic, or military concerns, dominated the expeditions sent to Antarctica after World War II.As a result, international scientific associations were able to work out arrangements for effective cooperation.In 1956 and 1957,for example,American meteorologists “wintered over” at the Soviet post, Mirnyy, while Soviet meteorologists wintered over at Little America on McMurdo Sound.These cooperative activities culminated in the International GeophysicalYear (IGY) of 1957–1958, a joint scientific effort by twelve nations (Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, and the United States) to conduct studies on the Earth and its cosmic environment. In these years the desire to keepAntarctica demilitarized was general,and some diplomatic discussion of the possibility had taken place. On May 3, 1958, the United States proposed to the eleven other nations participating in the IGY that a conference be held, based on three points of agreement that had been reached in informal discussions: 1. that the legal status quo of the Antarctic continent remain unchanged; 2. that scientific cooperation continue; and 3. that the continent be used for peaceful purposes only. All participating nations accepted the U.S. invitation, and the resulting Washington Conference on Antarctica convened on October 15,1959.No insurmountable conflicts or issues divided the conference, and negotiations culminated in a treaty signed by all twelve nations on December 1, 1959. U.S. ratification was deposited August 18, 1960, and the treaty entered into force on June 23,1961,when the formal ratification of all participating nations had been received. Article I of the treaty provides that Antarctica be used for peaceful purposes only.It specifically prohibits “any measures of a military nature, such as the establishment of military bases and fortifications, the carrying out of military maneuvers, as well as the testing of any type of weapons.” Military personnel or equipment, however, may be used for scientific research or for any other peaceful purpose.Article I also prohibits nuclear explosions and the disposal of radioactive waste material in Antarctica, subject to certain future international agreements on these subjects. All contracting parties entitled to participation in the meetings referred to in Article IX of the treaty have the right to designate observers to carry out inspections in all areas of Antarctica, including all stations, installations, and equipment and ships and aircraft at discharge or embarkation points. Each observer has complete freedom of access at any time to any and all areas of Antarctica. Contracting parties may also carry out aerial inspections. These are provisions for amending the treaty and for...

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