Roman Tragedy: Theatre to Theatricality

Introduction: Theatre to Theatricality

In the De finibus (1.2.4), Cicero claims that Roman dramatists copied their Greek originals “word for word.” If we read further in the same passage, however, Cicero states that Romans did more than merely translate from the Greek: What strikes me first about [those who claim to despise Latin writings] is this: why does their native language not please them on serious topics when not unwillingly do they read Latin tragedies that have been translated word for word from the Greek? Indeed, who is so hostile practically to the name Roman that he would despise or reject Ennius’ “Medea” or Pacuvius’ “Antiope” because he claims to enjoy the very same plays written by Euripides, and hate Latin literature? “Am I to read,” he says, “the ‘Synephebos’ of Caecilius or Terence’s ‘Andria,’ rather than the corresponding plays of Menander?” I disagree with such people so much that, although Sophocles has written an “Electra” best, nevertheless I think the version by Atilius, however badly translated, ought to be read, whom Licinius calls an “iron writer,” but all the same a writer, I think, and deserving to be read. To be sure, complete ignorance of our own poets is the sign either of total laziness or of extreme rare taste. In my opinion, no one seems sufficiently learned who is ignorant of our native authors. If we read the line from a Latin tragedy, “Would that in the forest . . .,” no less eagerly than we do the same line in the Greek, would the same passages in which Plato discusses morality and happiness be less effective if translated into Latin? And what if we do not perform the mere task of translation, but taking care to preserve what was expressed in the original by those of whom we approve, we add to them our own opinions and style of com1 i n t r o d u c t i o n THEATRE TO THEATRICALITY position? What reason could they offer for preferring Greek over what is brilliantly written and not merely translated in Latin from the Greek? ( f i n . 1 . 2 . 4 – 6 ) How should we interpret Cicero’s remarks? The context of the passage makes it clear that Cicero was looking for a Roman exemplum to follow in order to justify his translation of Greek philosophy into Latin. He appeals, therefore, to the precedence of tragedians at Rome, who have already “copied” Greek literature in the form of plays. Cicero ’s statement early in the passage that Roman dramatists copied their originals “word for word,” however, is qualified further by his insistence that Roman versions contain something more, namely their own opinion and style (nostrum iudicium et nostrum scribendi ordinem). Does iudicium refer to changes made to a play, based on the dramatist’s own opinion, in order to make terms or concepts from Greek passages comprehensible to Romans, or to changes made to Greek originals that anticipated audience expectation or enjoyment, in the form of spectacle or offstage allusions? The two are not mutually exclusive. Roman tragedy needs to be understood in its cultural context from a performance-criticism perspective: Roman tragedians adapted rather than translated their Greek originals, unless they were composing original Roman plays.1 The Roman term “emulation” (aemulatio) in a literary context means to engage an original and improve upon it, versus mere imitation (imitatio), which seeks only to copy an original without any distinction.2 Roman writers, whether engaging a Greek or a Latin model, always attempted to emulate rather than imitate their models. In the case of Greek tragedy, Roman dramatists added distinct Roman elements to make the plays intelligible to a Roman audience. In addition , Roman dramaturgy differed significantly from Greek practice: the chorus appears on the stage in Roman tragedies, not the orchestra, as in Greek plays, thus necessitating scenic and metrical changes. A Latin play for a Roman audience required the inclusion of Roman culture onstage to make a connection with the audience. From Livius’ first plays, which influenced Naevius and Ennius, Roman dramatists altered Greek originals for a Roman audience—indeed, there could have been no success , in either tragedy or comedy, if there were no connection with the audience.3 The Roman context of performance, which differed significantly from Greek practice, gave greater access to the stage (and more importantly, to an audience) to more people on more occasions for a variety of purr o m a n t r a...