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acknowledgments Writing a book is as much a social enterprise as it is an individual endeavor. Strictly speaking, no one writes a book alone: the invisible presence of others, like the submerged mass of an iceberg, is always there. Society furnishes critical traditions, conventions, and emerging trends that frame and condition, to a greater or lesser degree, how and what can be written; financial sponsors enable or facilitate research and the writing process; and no less important are the informal intellectual networks that often surround and nourish the otherwise solitary task of producing an original work. I am grateful to UC-Mexus for providing a timely grant in the last stage of the writing process and to my colleagues in the Spanish Section of the Department of Literature at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), for their unfailing support during the years I worked on this project. In the early stages of my research, Prof. Irene Matthews of Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, generously allowed me to read two chapters of her book manuscript “Nellie Campobello: La centaura del norte,” which was subsequently published in Mexico City. I am most appreciative to her. An exchange of letters with Mexican poet, novelist, and critic Jorge Aguilar Mora, now at the University of Maryland and a Villista scholar, proved intellectually valuable, as did his writings. In addition, Aguilar Mora made available to me difficult-to-find material by Dr. Ramón Puente. Two outstanding UCSD graduate students, now scholars in their own right, Brian Gollnick and Kenia Halleck, followed my musings in independent and graduate seminars on subalternity and intellectual culture in Mexico. Their incisive comments and questioning helped clarify my ideas during the writing of this book. In Mexico City, critic Evodio Escalante was openly receptive to my ideas and suggested bibliographical references. Art historian Laura González Matute revealed the existence of the Fondo Campobello, at the Biblioteca del Consejo de las Artes, and shared journalistic material from her personal files on the Campobello sisters. Prof. Edith Negrín, of the x writing villa’s revolution Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), read and provided useful comments on Chapter 2. Jesús Vargas Valdés, a specialist in the history of the state of Chihuahua and organizer of Villista conferences, patiently answered my questions during numerous lengthy conversations on the Villista movement and regional history. I deeply appreciate his encouragement and disinterested support. Herzonia Yáñez graciously provided room, board, and unfailing hospitality during many of my visits to Mexico City and kept me updated about news directly or indirectly related to my research. I would like to thank the Centro de Estudios Literarios “Antonio Cornejo Polar” (CELACP) for granting permission to publish segments of my article “Memoria y guerra en Cartucho de Nellie Campobello” (Revista de Crítica Literaria Latinoamericana, Sem. 1 [1998]: 167–186). An abridged, and slightly modified, version of Chapter 2 was published as “Villa y la subjetividad política popular: Un acercamiento subalternista a Los de abajo de Mariano Azuela” (Foro Hispánico 22 [2002]: 11–26). This book was originally written in Spanish and placed in the hands of a professional translator. Dissatisfied with the results, I came to the conclusion that I would have to rewrite the manuscript in English. In the process, I expanded Chapters 1 and 3, completely rewrote Chapters 4 and 5, and added Chapter 6. I was fortunate to receive critical input and encouragement from two outstanding individuals. Anne R. Archer, of New York City, read the entire Spanish manuscript and my first draft in English . A most lucid reader and a supportive ally throughout, she provided thoughtful comments, editing suggestions, as well as keen interest in the material, particularly on Campobello. Prof. Aníbal Yáñez from California State University, San Marcos, proofread the entire manuscript and spent countless hours correcting and discussing with me subtle matters of style and nuance. Whatever imperfections this book may have they are less numerous, I am sure, than they would have been without his help; my debt to him is most profound. My wife, Consuelo M. Soto, read the manuscript and suggested corrections at different stages of my writing. Her support and insightful comments made me rethink, for the better, the connection between Mexico’s cultural politics and history. Finally, I would be remiss if I did not mention my father, Benjamín Parra Banderas, who died after a long illness before the book was completed...

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