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Chapter 4. Historical Developments in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Ecuador (Margaret Young-Sánchez)
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margaret young-sánchez In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, great political, economic, and social changes occurred in the territories that are now Ecuador. The colonial Audiencia experienced revolution, confederation, and finally independence as a republic. Political control oscillated frequently between coastal and highland factions, representing constituencies with widely disparate ecologies and economies. Despite such regional rivalries, political power in the nineteenth century was consistently monopolized by a white, urban, European-oriented elite class, while rural and indigenous populations were exploited and oppressed . By slow and painful increments, that situation began to change in the twentieth century, as Ecuador’s rural population gained economic power and a voice in national policy. This change was accompanied by improvements in transportation and communications that increasingly linked together Ecuador ’s urban and rural areas. The process of unifying diverse ethnic, economic, and regional interests, and forging a new, inclusive national culture is incomplete but ongoing. Late Colonial Unrest The late eighteenth century was a period of considerable interethnic strife throughout the central Andean region. Although Tupac Amaru’s influence did not extend as far as the Audiencia of Quito, this region also experienced a succession of small-scale, local indigenous rebellions throughout the second half of the eighteenth century, which continued into the first decades of the nineteenth century. These uprisings, which often led to attacks on Spanish haciendas, towns, and officials, were frequently sparked by increases in taxaCHAPTER 4 Historical Developments in Nineteenthand Twentieth-Century Ecuador 112 Costume and History in Highland Ecuador tion or events (such as censuses) believed to precede such increases. As Moreno Yánez documents, these rebellions were not directed against the colonial social or governmental structure per se, nor did they involve an attempt to unite the entire indigenous population against its white oppressors (1985: 397– 416).Typically, the uprisings were led by one or more charismatic local leaders who were not, in most cases, caciques (these indigenous nobles usually sided with the Spanish authorities). Spanish strategy for suppressing the rebellions focused on capturing and publicly executing the ringleaders; speedy collapse of the uprising usually followed (Moreno Yánez 1985: 416–423). Much of this turmoil in the Andean region can be linked to the Spanish Crown’s attempts to increase tax revenues to pay for the empire’s escalating military expenditures. Both to facilitate this goal and to improve living conditions for its colonial subjects, the Crown also attempted to reform colonial governments by improving efficiency and reducing corruption. An important aspect of the reforms involved centralizing government authority in Spain, and replacing Creole (American-born) officials with peninsular Spaniards (Mörner 1985: 95). The Crown’s reform measures were undertaken at a time of serious economic problems throughout much of the Andean region. As noted by Austin (this volume) and Tyrer (1976), the Audiencia of Quito’s textile industry was declining because of both decreased demand and competition from imported European goods. This situation, in turn, brought about lower tax revenues for the colonial government, which was then forced to rely on the tribute levied against indigenous people for an increasing share of its needs. The worsening economic situation of the Audiencia’s indigenous population contributed not only to the armed rebellions mentioned earlier but also to large-scale internal migration as indigenous individuals and families sought to escape tribute and mita obligations (Espinoza, Achig, and Martínez 1982: 43). In 1767, the Jesuit order (regarded as a threat to the government’s social , political, and economic power) was expelled from Spain and its colonies. In Ecuador, the order’s schools were closed and its agricultural estates and manufacturing enterprises were confiscated. These assets were then sold; the indigenous people who worked in such enterprises continued to do so. Crown reform policies had an adverse impact on the Creole elite throughout the Spanish colonies, including the Audiencia of Quito. Exclusion from important positions in colonial government cut creoles off from a highly significant source of wealth, prestige, and power. Creole discontent grew in the first decade of the nineteenth century, and political turmoil in Spain following Napoleon’s 1809 invasion provided the opportunity for several abortive attempts to free Quito from Spanish rule. In 1822, after more than a decade [44.200.39.110] Project MUSE (2024-03-28 11:21 GMT) Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Ecuador 113 of struggle that involved both local forces and foreign armies and engendered serious economic dislocations, Quito became independent of Spain. Ecuador then joined the Confederation of Gran...