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Glossary Ability: Synonymous with proficiency. A given language ability can never consist of a single module or processing mechanism by itself. Knowledge structures, information-processing components, and different kinds of subskill come together in performance of language-related tasks. See also competence. Additive bilingualism: Usually refers to sequential bilingualism in children, in which the L2 develops without resulting in any erosion of the L1. In contrast, subtractive bilingualism proceeds toward the development of one dominant/primary language (normally a rapidly developing L2) and the early stabilization or attrition of the other. It is important to emphasize that subtractive bilingualism does not typically imply any variety of semilingualism, and that it is a normal language development outcome among children exposed to two languages. Aphasia: Loss, impairment, or disruption of language ability as a result of trauma to the brain. Impairment may be partial and/or temporary and may affect only specific domains or functions. Also, impairment may affect an underlying linguistic knowledge structure or a language-processing component. Attrition: Erosion, loss of competence. In this book, when referring to language, the term implies (language impairment aside) replacement of one language subsystem by another. Autochthonous: Indigenous. Awareness: Refers to perception, or to another kind of mental product that undergoes processing and that is subject to deliberate reflection, sensible in some way, or available to introspection. “Awareness” implies that attention may be brought to bear on a mental product or activity. Bilingualism: Knowledge of two languages that is significant in some sense (e.g., beyond beginning L2 learning). In bilingualism, one language may be weaker or less complete than the other; that is, “bilingualism” does not refer only to balanced bilingualism or equivalent proficiency in two languages, which is the other possible outcome of exposure to two languages . This definition is preferable to restricting the term to the select subset of persons who possess complete native-like abilities in two languages. Bootstrapping: From the metaphorical use of the name of the strap sewn at the rear of a boot to help in pulling it up, as in “pulling yourself up by your own bootstraps.” It implies the ability to carry out a task by relying on one’s own resources. In language acquisition and learning, the idea is that children call upon existing knowledge structures or abilities to 314 Glossary intervene in the acquisition or learning of another competence or ability. One knowledge structure or ability that is more highly developed may “pull up” another. Pinker (1994, 385) proposes that children “lift themselves up by their bootstraps at the very outset of language acquisition, and make the first basic discoveries about the grammar of their language.” They “get syntax acquisition started” by making inferences, for example, about subjects based on the position of the agent of an action in simple declarative active sentences. Bottom-up: See top-down. Codeswitching: See mixing. Coherence/Cohesion: “Coherence” is the characteristic of a discourse or text whereby its elements are organized in a logical or structured manner; the parts are connected in a meaningful way—for example, chronologically in the case of narrative. In the case of argumentative discourse, one might ask, are points and counterpoints pertinent? Meanings in a text or discourse are linked, as in a dialog for example, where shared knowledge might indicate the relationship between the elements in question. A coherent discourse takes the form of a dialog (as in a conversation), a monolog (as in a speech or lecture), or a text. “Cohesion,” on the other hand, refers to a specific relationship between elements in a text (e.g., between two words; between a word and a phrase; or between a word or a phrase and a “deleted” element, as in ellipsis). Cohesion and coherence work together in an interdependent way. Competence: A knowledge system or knowledge structure that underlies ability. Processing mechanisms (which also underlie ability), which control or put competence to use in actual performance, should be considered separately. According to this view, an ability depends on the coming together of competencies and processing mechanisms. That is why competence is revealed only indirectly in performance. Even within the linguistic domain there are different kinds of “knowledge of language,” different kinds of competence. Componential: Refers to cognitive components or structures. Shatil and Share (2003, 25), for example, propose that “[a] componential approach to reading allows us to categorize reading processes as either modular or nonmodular.” In this book, a “componential approach” to studying language...

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