Handbook of Semiotics

Gaze

Gaze In a cliche of popular culture, the eye is "the mirror of the soul," and archaic cultures believe in the magic power of the "evil eye." Such views epitomize the great social significance of gazing behavior. Semiotic functions of the eye and of visual interaction have been explored by cultural ethologists (Koenig 1975), social psychologists (Ellgring 1975, Argyle &: Cook 1976), linguists (Ehlich &: Rehbein 1982), and many other interdisciplinary researchers in nonverbal communication (cf. Harper et al. 1978: 171-245, Exline &: Fehr 1978, Knapp 1978: 294-321, Scherer &: Wallbott, eds. 1979: 59-102). I. The Sign Repertoire of the Eye Gazing behavior is one of the most impressive examples for illustrating Watzlawick's metacommunicative axiom of the impossibility ofnot communicating (see Communication 2.6.2). In social interaction, both gazing and not gazing at the other person may be equally communicative . Communication by gazing has been analyzed according to three major variables: frequency, duration, and gaze direction. For the frequency and duration of gazing in verbal interaction , see Duncan &: Fiske (1977: 80-88). Modes of gaze direction, as discussed by Cranach &: Ellgring (1973: 421-22), are onesided gaze, mutual gaze (eye contact), gaze shift, one-sided and mutual omission and avoidance of gaze. For the further development of the typology of gazing behavior into a more comprehensive taxonomy of the sign repertoire of the eye, see Ehlich &: Rehbein (1982: 48-77). Apart from these studies in eye movements and the research in eyebrow behavior (see Facial Signals), the eyelids and the pupils are two further domains of potential semiotic significance in gazing. Little research has been done on the significance of lid movements (cf. Ehlich &: Rehbein 1982: 23-42, and see Maranda 1986 on the semiotics of blinking), but studies on pupillary reactions claiming that pupil dilation and constriction can be interpreted as an index of the degree of emotional arousal and interest (cf Hess &: Petrovich 1978) have caused a vivid debate (cf. Harper et al. 1978: 228-33). 2. Functions of Gaze The primary functions of gaze are phatic, expressive , and conative. 2.1 Phatic Function In verbal interaction, the phatic function of gaze lies in its monitoring role in the initiation and maintenance of conversation. Among several other functions of gazing discussed by Ar2 . FUNCTIONS OF GAZE • 405 gyle & Dean (1965: 303), the following three refer to such phatic functions: (1) signaling that the channel is open (for further interaction), (2) information seeking, and (3) establishment and recognition of social relationship (cf. also Argyle et al. 1973). The phatic function of gaze is more apparent in the gaze patterns which accompany conversational turn taking (Kendon 1977, Goodwin 1981). For example, it has been shown that the avoidance of eye contact in conversation is an index of the speaker's desire to continue speaking, while the prolonged looking at another person is a Signal for this person to speak next (cf. Kendon 1977: 48). For more detailed studies in the correlation between gaze and speaking, see Ellgring (1975), Harper et al. (1978: 184-89), Ekman (1980a), and Ehlich &: Rehbein (1982). 2.2 Expressive and Conative Functions Nummenmaa (1964) conducted tests in which photographs of eyes isolated from the rest of the face were presented to test persons. The results showed a Significant agreement in the evaluations of emotions such as 'pleasure,' 'surprise,' and 'anger' which were attributed to the eyes (see also Argyle &: Cook 1976: 75). Such gazes testify to the expressive function of looking behavior. On the less certain assumption that eyes might also express personality traits, see Piderit (1867: 42-52), Lersch (1932: 40-81), and Leonhard (1976: 120-36). For racial and sex differences in gazing, see Henley (1977: 151-67). While gazes with an expressive function convey information about the addresser, the conative function dominates when the message focuses on the addressee. Such functions of gazing are less clearly identifiable in isolation from the facial and social context of the eye. Nevertheless, not only the proverbial phrase "if looks could kill" but also research on gazes as indices ofintimacy, sympathy, hos406 • GAZE tility, aggression, or dominance (Argyle &: Cook 1976, Ellsworth & Langer 1976, Harper et al. 1978: 189-215) testify to the conative function of gaze. 3. Culture and Nature in Gazing Like other facial signals, gaze has both a biological and a cultural basis (cf. Argyle &: Cook 1976: 1-34). Phylogenetically, staring eyes are a threat Signal for many animal species. For several primate species, the glance has been shown to be a signal by which social dominance is established or...