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8 America in the 1930s The WPA and Federal Music Project, Roy Harris, John Cage, Lou Harrison, Paul Bowles, Carl Ruggles, and Harlem after Its Renaissance A nd then, with a crash heard ’round the world, it all came tumbling down—the New York stock market debacle began in October 1929. The 1920s had been a period of jubilation over the successful conclusion of World War I, supposedly the war to end all wars. In addition to the emotional relief, there was an economic surge and, at least in the major cities, an astonishing relaxation of Puritanical social and sexual strictures. For the first time Americans had become aware of their great industrial potential and had watched it rescue Western civilization from tyranny. No longer a junior member of the community of nations, the United States was now a power to be reckoned with. No wonder there was a general feeling—a veritable certainty—that good times were here to stay. The following decade could not have been more different. Bracketed by the onset of financial disaster on one end and World War II on the other, the 1930s were one of the dreariest periods in American history, and yet creative artists, as is their wont, continued to do what they always do— create. In the face of the crippling fiscal problems caused by the sudden disappearance of major fortunes among the rich and widespread unemployment among the working classes, this creativity was made possible to a considerable extent by programs instituted by the federal government, primarily the WPA (Works Progress Administration) and its affiliated subsidiaries . Particularly pertinent to our study is the FMP (Federal Music Project), which received special attention from Harry Hopkins. Hopkins had been chosen to head the entire undertaking by President Franklin Roosevelt, who was influenced by his wife, Eleanor.1 At first the 1929 stock market crash appeared to hurt only over-extended speculators, but the trickle-down effect soon proved to be devastating. By 1933, twelve thousand of the fifteen thousand musicians in New York were out of work.2 This downward spiral had been begun five years earlier with America in the 1930s 81 the advent of “talking” motion pictures, which were drawing audiences away from music halls, clubs, cabarets, and concerts. The depression then made attending any entertainment venue an extravagance. Every industry suffered, but none was hit harder than live music. By 1935 it was clear to the Roosevelt administration that measures of vast scope would have to be taken to bring the country back to normalcy and, at the same time, to preserve its cultural life. At Roosevelt’s urging, Congress allocated an astounding $27,000,000 to the Federal Art Project on October 8th of that year.3 This would be the equivalent of an unimaginable sum in modern-day terms, and an equally unimaginable act of generosity toward the arts in the current political atmosphere. The appointment of well-known conductor and composer Nikolai Sokoloff as head of the FMP guaranteed its conservative viewpoint. While it tried to be inclusive, the FMP’s clear bias was toward classical music and classically trained performers; for example, the ability to read music was a sine qua non. Sokoloff and his staff believed that classical music had a beneficial effect on all who heard it, and were determined to spread their gospel. “Music is a public right and obligation,” said Sokoloff,4 and enough powerful people in Washington agreed with him to enable him to act on his convictions. The FMP hoped that subsidizing the formation of symphony orchestras all over the country would not only save hundreds of musicians from starvation , but eventually would create an intelligent, interested public willing to support these institutions after federal aid was phased out. In many instances this really did happen. Program administrators knew that they had to avoid charges of radicalism or Communist tendencies, for there were plenty in the government who still distrusted the arts and dreaded “subversive” attitudes. Administrators dictated that only U.S. citizens could be hired, and any hint of scandal canceled a program or ousted a player. Orchestras and choruses were segregated, with some of the African American groups scoring the biggest success in terms of tickets sold and revenue brought in. Sokoloff wisely determined to connect established listening habits and the newly formed orchestras. Rather than holding stand-alone orchestral concerts, Sokoloff had the ensembles participate as part of traditional events—JulyFourthcelebrations,ArmisticeDayparades,andthelike.5 Popular favorites...

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