Islam: Its History, Teaching, and Practices

3. Muslim Groups

3 Muslim Groups Like all other religions, Islam is split into many different groups, and this subdivision of Islam is similar to other religions in two ways. First, Muslims form one religious community and their differences do not impair their basic sense of solidarity as adherents of Islam. In fact, Muslims tend to regard different Islamic groups as making a positive contribution to the overall development of Islam. Second, Muslims, like Christians (Catholic, Orthodox, and Protestant) or Buddhists (Mahayana, Theravada, and Tantric), classify various Islamic sects or factions under three major groupings, namely Sunni, Shi"i, and Su¤. In order to understand the differences it is necessary to recall the disagreement over "Ali’s right of succession that split Muslims into two groups. Those who were loyal to "Ali came to be known as Shi"is (partisans or legitimists), questioned the legality of earlier elections, and denounced the claims of the ¤rst three caliphs as spurious . Those who accepted the legitimacy of the ¤rst three appointments to the caliphate in accordance with established custom came to be known as Sunnis (traditionalists or orthodox). They accused "Ali of complicity in the assassination of Caliph "Uthman and dismissed his claim to succession as having no legal justi¤cation. As to the origin of Su¤, the earliest use of the term in literature occurs in the early ninth century, though later Su¤s claimed the name to be as old as Islam. The following discussion considers the basic views held by the three major branches. A few of their subgroups will also be mentioned. Sunni The largest group of Muslims (making up more than 85 percent of the total Muslim population) are the Sunni, who recognize the ¤rst four caliphs and attribute no special religious or political function to "Ali or his descendants. Those who claim to follow what the prophet Muhammad laid down either by word, deed, or tacit approval came to be known as “the people of the sunnah and the community” (ahl al-sunnah w#al-jam"a). The term sunnah means a “well-trodden path,” a “custom,” or “practice.” In the religious terminology of Islam, the term signi¤es the example set by the prophet Muhammad. It distinguishes this group from Shi"i adherents, who view descent by birth in direct line from the prophet Muhammad as crucial. In a modern context, the term Sunni indicates the traditional way of the consolidated majority of the Islamic community as opposed to the Shi"i (“partisan”) dissenters. The issues raised by the early schismatic groups and the positions they adopted culminated in the formulation and subsequent general acceptance of a set of principles which became Sunni, or “orthodox,” doctrines. The foremost and fundamental element emphasized by Sunni orthodoxy was the primacy of tribal or community consensus (ijma"). This concept gained such strength that it became the main distinguishing feature between Muslims who accepted the views and decisions of the majority and those who did not. The Sunnis, then, considered themselves a privileged community protected by God’s hand and endowed with infallibility, while dissidents were condemned as heretics. This doctrinal proscription against dissent, however, soon gave way to more tolerant and liberal views that recognized the coexistence of diverse sects and schools of thought, and these views quickly gained wide currency among the Sunnis.This tolerance ultimately made it possible to embracewithintheMuslim community any member who did not formally renounce Islam, deny the oneness of God, or deny the prophethood of Muhammad. This broad-mindedness saved the integrity of the Sunni community. The two names that are associated with formulating Sunni doctrine are alAsh "ari and al-Maturidi. Despite certain theological differences between the two, their doctrines merged in the course of time and gained wide currency, particularly after the eleventh century. Later, Sunni theologians placed increasing emphasis on divine omnipotence, projecting a deterministic outlook on life at the expense of credence in the freedom of human will. Meanwhile, several Sunni theologians, between the ninth and twelfth centuries , began provocative explorations of inquiry. Their works came to fruition in the comprehensive system of Ibn Sina (980–1037),popularly known to the West by his Latinized name of Avicenna. Unfortunately, the powerful impact of natural theology these scholars brought to bear on Islamic thought posed a threat to Sunni orthodoxy. Soon these philosophers became the target of suspicion and attack by those who tolerated no argument against revealed theology. Abu Hamid Muhammad al-Ghazali (1058–1111), the famous Muslim scholar and mystic...