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Abidjan, 14, 24n35, 267; City Breakers, 7, 13, 14; and jembe, 261 Accra, 29–30, 31–33, 35, 37, 38, 43–46, 49, 50, 51, 230; linguistic code-switching among youth, 40; nightclubs, 34, 212, 217, 218; Nima, 52, 296; recording studios , 221; street slang, 39, 47; venues for gospel, 226; venues for live performance , 222; venues for reggae, 216 activism, 57, 60, 70, 100, 157, 163, 255n14 aesthetic(s): fashion, 202; hip hop, 20, 46, 111, 131, 132, 138, 143, 244, 288, 296, 303, 308, 311n15; increase in options, 236; local, 54, 124n3, 137, 141, 143, 192, 194, 196; musical, 30, 71, 270; national , 130, 196; reggae, 244, 251, 296; and style, 118–19; visual, 41, 235. see also diaspora African American(s), 4; bridging gaps with, 40; culture in Ghana, 31–34, 47, 50, 301, 304; culture in Mali, 133–34; culture in Nigeria, 147, 150, 152–55; culture in Tanzania , 190–91, 196, 314n47; culture in United States, 2, 4, 17, 286; dialect and African rap, 14, 16, 37–38, 40, 41, 112, 153–55, 178, 291, 295; films directed by, 17; jubilee singers, 291; minstrels, 155, 291; and PANAFEST, 54n13; relations with African immigrants, 11, 22n20, 311n20; South Africans and, 70–71, 72, 291; verbal arts, 91n16. see also oratory African languages and peoples, 283; Afrikaans , 61, 306, 312n27; Akan, 30, 32, indEx Most people and musical genres are listed under their country entries; authors are listed individually. Page numbers in italics refer to illustrations. 37, 41, 48, 49, 51, 215, 222; Arabic, 137, 145n11, 291; Ashanti, 47, 48; Bamana, 99, 107n9, 137, 138, 139, 262–63, 266– 67, 269, 270–72, 275n4, 281n10; Bantu, 64, 188, 306; Baoule, 215; Bobo, 281n10; Bozo, 263; Chichewa, 124n7, 238, 240, 241–43, 245, 246–50, 255n3, 256n27, 257n31, 293; Chinyanja, 255n3; Chitumbuka , 256n25; Dagbane, 32, 52; Dan, 103, 107n2; Egba, 156, 166n5; Ewe, 44, 47, 51; Fante, 44, 51; Frafra, 229; Fula(ni)/Peul, 87, 270, 271, 272, 281n10; Ga, 32, 44, 47, 51, 215, 218, 221, 229; Gur, 99; Hausa, 32, 44, 47, 51; Igbo, 13, 153; Jula, 92, 94, 97–100, 103, 107nn8– 9; Kagooro, 269; Khasonka, 270; Kikuyu , 175, 184, 312n27; Lomwe, 238; Luo, 175–77, 180, 184, 299; Maasai, 190, 312n23; Mande, 80, 87, 90n1, 99– 100, 107n9, 215; Maninka, 98, 107n9, 263, 267, 268, 270–72, 281n10; Minyanka , 281n10; Mossi, 99; Mwanyamwezi , 196; Senufo, 99, 281n10; Sheng, 173, 175, 177, 178, 179, 183, 184, 292, 294, 312n24; Songhay, 271–72; Soninke/Maraka, 262, 266, 270, 281n10; (Se)Sotho, 59, 306; (Ki)Swahili, 15, 22n22, 171, 173, 175, 178, 180, 183, 184, 187, 192, 293, 294, 314n41; Twi, 16, 29, 35, 37–40, 42, 44, 47–51, 54n6, 54n8, 55n22, 215, 218, 221, 222, 295, 299, 300; Wasulu, 268; Wolof, 19, 80, 87, 268–69, 294; (isi)Xhosa, 64, 66, 306; Yao, 255n3; 372 iNDEx Yoruba, 151, 156, 313n36; (isi)Zulu, 63, 306. see also pidgin African musical instruments, 221; balafon (Mande), 80, 129–30; bònkolo (Bamana), 267, 281n8; calabash, 85, 86, 91n14; dondo (Dagbane), 52; donka (Soninke), 266; dundun (Yoruba ), 12; dunun (Mande), 265, 266, 276, 279, 281n5; flute (Fula/Peul), 87; gojo (Dagomba), 216; gome, 216; gyil (Dagari), 229; harp, 273; kirin (Wasulu ), 268; koliko/kologo (Frafra), 216– 17, 221, 222; kora (Mande), 80, 87, 136, 298; lute, 273; ngusunbala (Bamana), 267, 281n8; sabar (Wolof), 24n42, 80, 85, 267, 281n8, 304, 306; seprewa, 229; shekere, 157; xylophone, 273. see also guitar; jembe africanhiphop.com, 23n24, 294, 302, 313n40 Africanize, 90, 211, 302; the music, 298–99 Afrika Bambaataa, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7–8, 21n12, 59, 286, 288; and Africa, 81–82, 290 afrobeat, 12, 34, 166, 167n6; highlife and, 32; hiplife and, 29, 35, 39, 53; Nigerian hip hop and, 148, 155, 156–59, 160 Afrocentric, 185; fashion, 211; U.S. rap, 290, 302, 311n19 Afro-pessimism, 83, 89 afropop.org, 25n44 Afro-rock, 153, 211, 216, 217, 224, 231n3 Akindès, Francis, 95 Akindes, Simon, 107n10 Algeria, x, xi, 9, 25n44; The Hama Boys, 312n30 Alliance Française (French Cultural Center), 15, 216, 222, 228, 230, 235 Americanization, 188; Americanized, 148, 152 Amsterdam, 54n8, 61 Anan, Kofi, 42 Angola, 60, 171, 182; Poston, Jamayka, 60 apprenticing, 195, 203, 264, 274 appropriation, 142, 195, 300; of American fashion, 198; of American rap, 4, 148, 150, 251; of global hip hop, 179, 303; and jembe, 261, 265, 266, 274, 308; of rap by the state, 30, 43–46; of reggae in...

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