Carlos Aldama's Life in Batá: Cuba, Diaspora, and the Drum

Notes

157 Introduction 1. Rogozinski, Brief History of the Caribbean , 8. 2. Chomsky et al., Cuba Reader; Cluster and Hernández, History of Havana; Scarpaci et al., Havana; Kapcia, Havana; Rogozinski, Brief History of the Caribbean. 3. Miguel Barnet, La fuente viva, 183. 4. The Yoruba cultural area covered Nigeria and the east of Benin, as far as the kingdom of Ketu. The Arará were from the kingdom of Allada, in the south of Dahomey , near the slaving port of Ouidah. The Bantu (Congo in Cuba) inhabited the south of Cameroon, Gabon, the Congo (formerly Congo-Brazaville), Burundi, Rwanda, Congo-Zaire, and Angola, as far as the north of Namibia. Calabar (source of Carabalí [Abakuá] culture in Cuba) stretched between Nigeria and Cameroon , from the coast to Lake Chad. See Roy, Cuban Music, 12; see also Brandon, Santeria from Africa to the New World. 5. Martínez, The Open Wound, 42. 6. C. Moore, Castro, the Blacks, and Africa, 102. 7. Knight, Slave Society in Cuba; Pérez, Jr., Cuba Between Empires; Scarpaci et al., Havana, 3. 8. Barnet, La fuente viva, 265. 9. Deuteronomy 28:25. 10. Gilroy, The Black Atlantic, 205. 11. hooks, “In Our Glory,” 47. 12. Gilroy, The Black Atlantic, 195. 13. Patterson and Kelley, “Unfinished Migrations,” 15. See also Butler, “Defining Diaspora.” 14. Johnson, Diaspora Conversions, 37–38. 15. Ortiz, La Africanía; Gilroy, The Black Atlantic; Béhague, Music and Black Ethnicity; Daniel, Dancing Wisdom; Nwankwo and Diouf, Rhythms of the AfroAtlantic World; Vaughan, Rebel Dance, Renegade Stance. 16. Klein, Yorùbá Bàtá, 21; Atanda, Introduction to Yoruba. 17. Klein, Yorùbá Bàtá, 13. 18. Usually in Spanish oricha (without any s’s) is used for both singular and plural : for example, los oricha. 19. Cabrera, Yemayá y Ochún, iii. 20. Amira and Cornelius note the dominance of the Havana tradition in New York City (Music of Santería, 15). In Santiago de Cuba, fundamento drums born from both Havana and Matanzas are used, but the Havana performance style is dominant. Sometimes the styles are mixed, with the Havana style maintaining prominence. 21. Behar, Translated Woman, 12. 22. See Vaughan, Rebel Dance, for the results of my research on contemporary Afro-Cuban music. n o t e s 158 Notes to pages 9–30 23. In the Abakuá tradition, masked dancers called ireme perform precise foot patterns that they use to symbolically trace sacred diagrams on the ground. In addition to the costumed ireme, regular members of Abakuá, like Carlos, perform the dance as well. See Miller, Voice of the Leopard. 24. Grele, Envelopes of Sound. 25. Vélez, Drumming for the Gods, xviii. 26. Clifford and Marcus, Writing Culture , 106, quoted in Vélez, Drumming for the Gods. 27. Vélez, Drumming for the Gods, xviii. 28. Cluster and Hernández, History of Havana, 50. 29. Cabrera, Anagó; Santiesteban, El habla popular cubana de hoy. See also Cabrera ’s Cuentos negros de Cuba, El Monte, Yemayá y Ochún, and Lachatañeré’s ¡¡¡Oh, mío Yemayá!!! (1938) for examples of “retelling ” Afro-Cuban stories. 30. Behar, Translated Woman, 12. 1. Fundamento 1. Bascom, Yoruba of Southwestern Nigeria, 13–15. 2. Falola and Childs, Yoruba Diaspora, 4. 3. Brandon, Santeria from Africa to the New World, 55; see also Matory, “English Professors of Brazil,” 72–103. 4. Brandon, Santeria from Africa to the New World, 56. 5. Brown, Santería Enthroned, 68–69. 6. Bastide, African Civilizations, 10. 7. Murphy, Santería, 33. 8. Matory, Sex and the Empire; Tishken et al., Şàngó in Africa. 9. Yoruba descendants in Cuba pronounce this as oricha, influenced by the Spanish language, which does not have the ş/sh sound of Nigerian Yoruba or English. 10. Edwards and Mason, Black Gods, 3–4. 11. For more information about each oricha, see also Bascom, Yoruba of Southwestern Nigeria; Edwards and Mason, Black Gods; Mason, Orin Orisa. 12. Mason, Orin Orisa, 8. 13. Klein, Yorùbá Bàtá, 189. See also Benkomo, “Crafting the Sacred Batá Drums”; Lovejoy, “Drums of Şàngó.” 14. Vélez, Drumming for the Gods, 50. 15. Mason, Orin Orisa, 54. 16. Mason, Orin Orisa. 17. Moreno, “Festive Rituals”; Ortiz, Los cabildos, 6. 18. Roy, Cuban Music, 13. 19. Bastide, African Civilizations, 95. 20. Brandon, Santeria from Africa to the New World, 70–71. 21. Brown, Santería Enthroned, 66. 22. Mason, Orin Orisa, 9. 23. Brown, Santería Enthroned, 70. 24. Ortiz, Los cabildos, 14. 25. For descriptions of the ritual initiation process...