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6 Varieties of Jewish Philanthropy A s Derek Penslar has suggested, modern Jewish philanthropy must be examined not only in the context of traditions of Jewish charity but also “within the framework of the modernization of philanthropy on the Continent as a whole.”1 The philanthropic and welfare institutions that Russian Jews developed in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries cannot be fully understood if they are seen simply as extensions of the ramified system of communal welfare that was at the core of the autonomous Jewish community in premodern Eastern Europe. The new Russian Jewish leadership that we examined in chapter 2 looked to new models for the provision of medical care, poor relief, and education not only because Russian law required them to care for their sick and indigent, but also as a tool in their effort to reform and modernize Russian Jewry; they hoped to shape a new, healthy, productive, and “cultivated” generation of Russian Jews. A rational and “scientific” system of philanthropy could bring order to the very chaotic world of Jewish charity. Heinz-­ Dietrich Löwe writes, Jewish charity became transformed from an activity which dealt with ameliorating symptoms to one which aimed at changing the structural constraints which affected Jewish economic activity and would enable the impoverished elements of Jewish society to attain economic self-­ sufficiency.2 Charitable giving and communal welfare could also serve as political strategies to lobby for greater acceptance of Jews in Russian society. And finally, philanthropy was an ideal vehicle for the expression of a modern Jewish identity ; Jews who felt uncomfortable relating to their Jewishness as religion or nationality were often much more at ease with the universalist and humanitarian conceptions of Judaism. In all of these, Russian Jews were perhaps a bit later chronologically but fundamentally no different from Jews in Western and Central Europe in their search for a modern ethos of Jewish charity. “The centrality of philanthropy as a source of collective Jewish identity is indeed a hallmark of modernity.”3 A number of groups were involved in developing new forms of charitable work with the Jewish community: the wealthy notables; maskilim and 212 JEWISH METROPOLIS their successors, the nationalist (and sometimes radical) intelligentsia; polu-­ intelligenty who rose from the proletariat to provide initiative and leadership for artisans’ and workers’ self-­ help organizations in the twentieth century; and women—who could be members of any of these groups and played an increasingly significant role in charity, especially private philanthropic organizations . Indeed, by creating a realm of independent, progressive philanthropic institutions, women played an important role in extending the boundaries of Jewish community and creating a Jewish public sphere that mirrored new developments in the larger Russian milieu. Unlike the many other European states that developed welfare systems in the nineteenth century, the Russian Empire had neither an official welfare policy nor any organized system of public relief.4 As was the case in all of the cities of the Russian Empire, Kiev’s poor were cared for by a patchwork of public and private institutions supported by the state, municipal government , and, above all, individual donors. Like all of Russian society, welfare was usually organized according to the social status, profession, nationality, and religion of the recipient, and it was thus natural for Jews to establish charitable societies to provide for their less fortunate coreligionists. Moreover , as we have seen, Russian legislation mandated that the proceeds of the kosher meat tax be used to care for the poor and the sick. At the beginning of our period, there were only a handful of welfare institutions in Kiev; by its conclusion, the city counted over 150 welfare institutions, including 30 children’s shelters and orphanages, 23 societies to aid needy pupils, and 22­ hospitals.5 As was the case in Western Europe, Jews in Kiev understood their philanthropic organizations as a means toward the end of integration into the surrounding society; it was hoped that institutions such as the Jewish Hospital would show Russians the true face of Judaism and Jews: caring for all, regardless of faith; forward-­ looking and progressive; helping to advance the country of which they were an integral part.6 Charity was also one of the few realms in which Jews could exert leadership in the public sphere, since Jewish political participation was restricted by the state (especially on the municipal level, where Jews lacked representation even after they had received the right to vote for the State Duma in 1906). And...

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