The American Midwest: An Interpretive Encyclopedia

Science and Technology, Health and Medicine

Science and Technology, Health and Medicine SECTION EDITOR George W. Paulson, M.D. 26414_U19.qxd 7/7/06 11:25 AM Page 1443 Overview 1446 Taming the Wilderness 1449 Building Shelter 1449 Claiming the Land, the Forest, and the Waters 1451 Indians’ Weapons, Tools, and Products 1452 Moving Dirt 1453 Removing the Trees 1454 Settlers’ Weapons, Tools, and Products 1455 Water Technology 1456 Wetlands 1457 Harvesting Natural Resources 1458 Electricity 1459 Extracting Aluminum—Charles M. Hall (1863–1914) 1460 Fishing Technology 1461 Indian Harvesting Practices 1462 Mining Technology 1463 Nuclear Energy and Power 1465 Oil Technology 1466 Prairie Restoration 1467 Salt Mining Technology 1468 Wind-Turbine Power 1469 Producing the Food 1470 Agricultural Experiment Stations 1470 Food Processing 1471 Food Production 1472 Organic Farming 1474 Plant Genetics 1475 Seed Production 1476 Winemaking Technology 1477 Moving the People 1478 Automobile Technology 1478 Aviation Technology 1479 Bridge Technology 1481 Railroad Technology 1483 Shipping and Packaging Technologies 1484 Space Exploration Technology 1484 Creating for Progress 1486 Ceramics 1486 Chemical Abstracts Service 1487 Computer Technology 1487 Merchandizing Technology 1490 Nanotechnology 1491 Pollution Control 1491 The Pharmaceutical Industry 1492 Research Centers 1493 Women in Science 1496 Beginning to Fight Disease 1496 Pathfinders in Medicine: William Beaumont (1785–1853) and Daniel Drake (1785–1852) 1497 Common Diseases 1498 Establishment of Teaching Hospitals 1500 Native American and Herbal Medicine 1500 Pioneer Medicine 1501 Professional Organizations in American Medicine 1503 Developing Specialties 1504 The Kinsey Institute 1505 Major Clinics: Marshfield, Mayo, and Cleveland 1505 Orthopedic Implants 1508 Populism 1509 Psychiatric Centers 1510 Ralph Waters (1883–1979) and Anesthesia 1512 Sleep Research to Sleep Medicine 1512 Helping People Help Themselves 1513 The Battle Creek Sanitarium 1513 Increased Social Control 1514 Patient Support Organizations 1515 Rehabilitation and Sports Medicine 1516 The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union and Alcoholics Anonymous 1518 Educating the Healers 1519 Admissions Policies 1520 Chiropractic Medicine 1521 Dentistry 1521 Medical Education: Different Approaches in Illinois, Iowa, and Ohio 1522 Section Contents 26414_U19.qxd 7/7/06 11:25 AM Page 1444 Nursing 1526 Oslerian Medicine 1526 Innovating for Health 1527 Antibiotics and Vaccines 1528 Endocrinology and Infertility Management 1529 Genetics 1530 Science and Technology, Health and Medicine v 1445 HMOs and PPOs 1531 Imaging and the Revitalization of Anatomy 1532 Medical Education Reform and Case Western Reserve 1533 Medicopters 1534 Osteopathic Medicine 1534 26414_U19.qxd 7/7/06 11:25 AM Page 1445 Overview Although they caused difficulty for the early settlers, the geology, climate, and topography of the Midwest also offered opportunity, and the numerous streams, rivers, and great lakes encouraged as well as blocked movement. Early means of transportation were through these bodies of water, facilitated by canals, and then by advances in shipping, rail, and aviation technology. Some of the most innovative bridges in history were built in the Midwest, including an early suspension bridge in Cincinnati and formidably long ones that spanned the Mississippi. Draining the swamps (notably the famous Black Swamp in northwest Ohio) and eliminating standing water from agricultural fields by the use of tile channels was crucial for the settlement of the Midwest; it made possible its agriculture and sustained the soil that was destined to produce food for much of the world. Water was not the only natural element that had to be managed. To conquer the land, trees were eliminated by “girdling” the trunk (that is, removing a band of bark), as well as by ax work and sawmills. Trees were so effectively stripped from the landscape that the entire state of Wisconsin could have been covered by two feet of the plank lumber prepared from the trees that were removed from its surface. Much of the deforestation occurred to supply fuel to make iron or to generate warmth in a cold land, but wood was also the primary building material for shelter. Scattered log cabins are still one of the symbols of the Midwest 1446 v Economy and Technology and of its pioneer settlements. The shelters in the Midwest reflected the evolution of settlements nationwide , as housing evolved from lean-tos to log cabins to framed houses. With the advent of the railroad, it became possible to move heavy beams and finished products for construction. With the development of steel, skyscrapers became possible; some of the construction facilitated by steel was aesthetically unique as well as solidly functional. Power, after it was no longer produced by burning wood, depended on the abundant...