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102 | nash / cites and international tr ade Birkhead, Mike, Population Ecology and Lead Poisoning of the Mute Swan, Oxford University Press, 1982. Birkhead, Mike, and Perrin, Christopher, The Mute Swan (Helm Field Guides), Christopher Helm, 1988. Hibbert, A., Animal Welfare: Read All about It, Franklin Watts, 2004. Sears, J., Lead Poisoning in Mute Swans in the Thames Area during 1989, Nature Conservancy Council, Information and Library Services, 1990. Strod, D. A., Mudge, G. P., and Pienkowski, M. W., Protecting Internationally Important Bird Sites: A Review of EEC Special Protected Area Network in Great Britain, Joint Nature Conservation Committee, 1990. White, Rob, Crimes against Nature: Environmental Criminology and Ecological Justice, Willan, 2008. Dorothy Beeson Trade CITES and international trade Planet Earth is home to over 13,000 known species of mammals and birds; thousands of reptile, amphibian, and fish species; some 250,000 flowering plant species; and millions of insect and other invertebrate species. Together these animals and plants form part of the great natural wealth of the world with which we are entrusted, both for present generations and for generations to come. Yet many thousands of species are under pressure because of human activities such as habitat destruction, pollution, and unsustainable use. International trade, both legal and illegal, has grown dramatically over the past few decades as improved transport has made it easier to ship animals and plants, and their products, anywhere in the world. It is big business : commercial fishing and the timber trade aside, this international trade is estimated to be worth billions of dollars annually and to involve more than 350 million live plants and animals every year. Much of this trade aims to satisfy the demand for exotics and ornamental plants. Parts and derivatives such as furs and skins, traditional medicines, extracts, and oils are also traded commercially in large quantities. Concerned about the overexploitation of many vulnerable species through the then-unregulated international trade, governments adopted the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1973. The treaty entered into force in 1975 and had 175 member states in 2010. The convention prohibits most commercial international trade (and regulates noncommercial trade) in an agreed-upon list of plant and animal species that are threatened with extinction and that are, or may be, adversely affected by trade. These species are listed in the so-called Appendix I, which includes the snow leopard, the tiger, and other big cats; many rare primates, such as the chimpanzee and the gorilla; almost all large parrots; most crocodiles; all sea turtles; slipper orchids; and many cacti—in total 655 animal species and 298 plant species. CITES also regulates commercial international trade in plant and animal species that are not threatened with extinction but that could become so if their trade is not strictly regulated. These species are listed in Appendix II, which includes all other big cats, primates, cetaceans, parrots, crocodiles, cacti, and orchids, plus several carnivorous plants—in total 4,399 animal species and 28,679 plant species. A third list, Appendix III, includes species subject to regulation within a particular member country, and for which the cooperation of other member countries is sought to help regulate trade. There are 160 species of animals and 10 plant species in Appendix III. As trade impacts and population levels change, animal or plant species can be added to the CITES appendices, deleted from them, or transferred from one appendix to another. These decisions are based on the best scientific information available and the likely effectiveness of different types of regulation. Where trade is allowed, CITES regulates the export, re-export, import, and introduction of listed species through a system of permits and certificates that may be issued only if certain conditions are met, and which must be presented when leaving or entering a country. For species listed on Appendices I and II, one important requirement is that international trade in specimens of these species must not be detrimental to their survival in their natural habitat. Another requirement is that the animal or plant must have been legally obtained. The conditions, consultations, and inspections under which permits are issued and accepted are at the core of how CITES regulates international trade in listed spe- glover and linzey / the fur tr ade | 103 cies. Properly issued permits represent the end result of a chain of legal verifications, biological and ecological considerations , and considerations regarding sustainability and management that have to be made before a permit is issued...

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