Globetrotting: African American Athletes and Cold War Politics

1. The Showcase African American: Paul Robeson, Jackie Robinson, and the Politics of Cold War Prosperity and Repression

1. The Showcase African American Paul Robeson, Jackie Robinson, and the Politics of Cold War Prosperity and Repression Commissioner Kennesaw Mountain Landis convened a historic meeting at the Hotel Roosevelt on December 3, 1943, between the Major League Baseball club owners and the publishers of eight leading African American newspapers. Heretofore, African American newspapers had waged an unsuccessful campaign to force Major League Baseball to allow African Americans to compete for positions on Major League teams. One of the newspapers’ most ardent protesters, Sam Lacy of the Pittsburgh Courier, convinced the commissioner to grant the African American press an extensive audience after years of being rebuffed. Why did Commissioner Landis agree to the meeting? There is no evidence that Landis supported integration in the intervening two decades after he was appointed baseball’s first commissioner in 1920. A well-respected attorney who had been appointed to a federal judgeship in 1905 by President Theodore Roosevelt, Landis’s acceptance of the commissioner’s post served as “a symbol that reassured the [white] public of baseball’s honesty and integrity” after the Black Sox scandal of 1919. Through his power to mediate disputes, interpret rules, and police “conduct detrimental to baseball,” Landis gained the respect of Major League fans. However, African Americans distrusted Landis because he was the judge that presided over the dubious conviction of Jack Johnson, the first African American heavyweight champion, who was considered a public pariah because of his penchant for marrying white women. After several failed attempts, Johnson was convicted of violating the Mann Act, which forbade the interstate transportation of women for immoral purposes. The law had been intended to stop prostitution: Johnson was convicted for traveling Thomas_Text.indd 13 7/22/12 10:07 AM 14 Chapter One with his wife. Given the political nature of Johnson’s conviction, Landis did not appear to be a “friend” to African Americans.1 Commissioner Landis’s wide authority, coupled with the perception of him as a supporter of the color line, made him a favorite target for African Americans who opposed segregation in baseball. Landis’s opening comments at the 1943 meeting portended an ominous outcome. Landis began by repeating an oft-stated argument, “I want it clearly understood that there is no rule, nor to my knowledge has there even been, formal or informal, or any understanding, written or unwritten . . . against the hiring of Negroes in the Major Leagues!” By denying the existence of collusion among the owners to prevent American Americans from competing for playing positions in the Major Leagues, Landis’s opening statement attempted to preemptively undermine the arguments that would be put forward by the press officials.2 Undeterred by Landis’s denial, the three representatives of the African American press who were chosen to address the owners made impassioned pleas for greater access for black ballplayers. John Sengstacke of the Chicago Defender appealed to the owners’ patriotism. “The forces of hate, at home and abroad, are hard at work,” Sengstacke argued. “But we do not believe they will ever sell racism to Americans who have purchased democracy and their right to be free men through blood, sweat, and tears.” The thrust of Sengstacke’s remarks echoed the powerful “Double V” rhetoric that many African American activists employed during World War II: African Americans soldiers were fighting against German racism abroad and American racism at home. Consequently, Sengstacke’s sentiments pressed the point that African Americans had earned an opportunity for full equality based on their wartime sacrifices. Next, Ira F. Lewis of the Pittsburgh Courier appealed to the financial interest of the owners. Lewis argued that the public had already accepted African Americans as athletes by pointing to the large crowds at integrated football and baseball games. His presentation was followed by the Baltimore Afro-American’s Howard Murphy’s recitation of the publishers’ recommendations: First, baseball officials should take “immediate” steps to accept African Americans into the Major Leagues. Additionally, African Americans should not be restricted from competing in the minor league system or barred from entering the high school draft and other spaces from which Major League players were scouted. Last, Major League Baseball was asked to release a public statement saying African Americans were eligible for trials and permanent places on Major League teams.3 Thomas_Text.indd 14 7/22/12 10:07 AM The Showcase African American 15 One of the peculiarities of the meeting was...