In lieu of an abstract, here is a brief excerpt of the content:

FOUR POLITICS AND ISLAM Factors Determining Identity and the Status of Male-to-Female Transsexuals in Malaysia Yik Koon Teh The Western definition of male-to-female transsexuals, that is, men who want to undergo sex-change operations to become women, may not be appropriate in the Malaysian context. In Malaysia, the local term mak nyah refers both to men who want to have the surgery as well as to those who are comfortable keeping their penises and who do not seek surgical sex change. This phenomenon is closely linked to recent political developments in Malaysia. After achieving independence from Britain in 1957, there has been a gradual revival of Islam in Malaysia. Islam became the official religion when the nation-state of Malaysia was formed in 1963, and subsequently Syariah laws1 have been implemented for all Muslims in society. In recent decades, Islam has increasingly become a political tool to gain and sustain power deployed by the ruling party. In Islam, only khunsa, or hermaphrodites, are allowed to undergo sexchange operations, and so the majority of the transsexual population in Malaysia , who are not khunsas, are considered to be violators of the religion. Islam does not recognize the western category of transsexual. Therefore, transsexuals are regarded as nonentities. In order to force them to conform to Islamic practices, their freedom and rights are curtailed by the police and Islamic enforcement officers.2 These officials often conduct raids to apprehend 86 . Y I K KOON TE H mak nyahs for cross-dressing, indecent behavior, and so forth under the Minor Offences Act of 1955 or under Syariah law. This kind of surveillance and harassment, in turn, impacts upon the kind of transsexual identity possible in Malaysia. Although many characteristics are shared by male-to-female transsexuals all over the world, the forms that transsexualism takes are also determined by local cultural and religious factors. In most cases, transsexuals have to conform to local norms. In Malaysia, the lifestyle and self-image of transsexuals have been impacted by the country’s political history and political and religious exigencies. The Political History of Malaysia British rule first arrived in the Malay Peninsula in 1786 when Britain established a settlement on Penang Island to protect its shipping routes between China and India. However, complete British control was not established until the late 1800s after the signing of the Pangkor Treaty in 1874.3 Under British rule, Chinese and Indian laborers, who were non-Muslims, were imported to work in the tin mines and rubber plantations respectively. The local Malays, who were Muslims, were encouraged to farm and fish for a living. By encouraging ethnic divisions, including an ethnic division of labor, the Malays, Chinese, and Indians were kept from uniting against the British. During the colonial period, the authority over Islamic affairs exercised by the Malay sultans or local rulers was enshrined in the treaty and the law. The rulers in each state were aided by a Council of Islamic Affairs, and since the authority over Islamic affairs was decentralized, the administration of Islam differed in every state. The Federation of Malaya gained its independence from British colonial rule in 1957 and Malaysia was formed in 1963. In 1968, under the first prime minister of Malaysia, Tunku Abdul Rahman, the National Council for Islamic Affairs was established by the federal government to coordinate Islamic affairs throughout the nation through consultation and cooperation.4 Although Islam was established as the official religion of Malaysia, Islamic affairs were still mainly in the domain of the respective states. At around the same time, there was an increasing resurgence of Islam among rural and urban Malays. Dakwah (Muslim) movements attracted many followers, including many educated Malays. Examples of these organizations include Darul Arqam and Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia (Malaysian Islamic Youth Movement). Harold Crouch mentions that the religious [18.221.165.246] Project MUSE (2024-04-23 12:22 GMT) POLITICS A ND I S L A M . 87 attitudes of many young Malays in the universities and other educational institutions were not simply a result of bringing village beliefs and practices to the cities but, “Unlike their parents, whose practice of Islam was often ritualistic and traditional, the educated offspring came into contact with new religious ideas and interpretations through student organizations, visiting preachers and Islamic literature, much of which was translated from Arabic or Urdu. Influenced by new Islamic ideas and inspired to some extent by events such as the Iranian revolution, the dakwah movement...

Share