Exporting Japan: Politics of Emigration to Latin America

Notes

Notes Introduction 1. An unknown number of the first contingent of Japanese immigrants to Brazil settled in the Colonia Guatapara in 1908. 2. From the contribution of Katsuhiko Arakawa to Guatapara Shinbun (No. 356). See the website Watashitachi no Yonjūnen, http://40anos.nikkeybrasil.com.br/jp/biografia .php?cod=682. Accessed July 6, 2006. 3. Asahi Shinbun (September 16, 2004). 4. See the official website of the prime minister’s office: http://www.kantei.go.jp/jp/ koizumiphoto/2004/09/15brazil.html. 5. Mr. Koizumi has an elder cousin who emigrated to Brazil after World War II and runs a dental clinic in São Paulo. 6. For the neo-classical view of the supply-demand equation in the international labor market, see Briggs Jr., “International Migration and Labour Mobility”; Castles and Miller, Age of Migration; Wayne A. Cornelius, Philip L. Martin, and James F. Hollifield, “The Ambivalent Quest for Immigration Control,” in Cornelius, Martin, and Hollifield, Controlling Immigration; and Hatton and Williamson, Age of Mass Migration. 7. For a good summary of this micro-theory of neo-classical economics, see Massey et al., Worlds in Motion, 19–21. 8. Ishikawa, Nihon imin no chirigakuteki kenkyū; Koshiro, Trans-Pacific Racisms; Ide Thompson, “San Juan Yapacani.” 9. Theoretical and empirical weaknesses of the population variable in driving international migration are pointed out in different countries and periods by the following researchers: Cohen, Cambridge Survey of World Migration; Pertierra, Remittances and Returnees; and Myron Weiner, “The Global Migration Crisis,” in Gungwo, Global Histories and Migrations. 10. Hatton and Williamson point out that the question of local variations in the origin of emigrants in European migration has been overlooked (Age of Mass Migration, 15–16). 206 Notes to Pages 4–7 11. Hakkō, No. 35, 5; Yamada, Nanbei perū to hiroshima kenjin. For the theory of the culture of migration, see Piore, Birds of Passage. 12. Massey et al., Worlds in Motion, 47. 13. Benton and Pieke, Chinese in Europe; Hatton and Williamson, Age of Mass Migration; Cornelius, Martin, and Hollifield, “The Ambivalent Quest for Immigration Control,” in Cornelius et al., Controlling Immigration. 14. Kwong, New Chinatown; Millman, Other American, 27–28. Both authors use the term “ethnic enclave” for the dynamics for growth of ethnic communities. 15. Among the scholarship on social capital theory, some focus on the impact of state emigration policy and related institutions on the evolution of international migration. Yet, they treat the sender state’s role as supplementary to other socially embedded institutions and networks, and its impact as intermediary. See, for example, Abella, “International Migration and Development”; Eelens and Speckmann, “Recruitment of Labor Migrants”; Huan-Ming Ling, “East Asian Migration to the Middle East.” 16. Massey et al., Worlds in Motion, 286. 17. Marx, Making Race and Nation, 2. 18. Polanyi, Great Transformation. 19. While presenting the historical cases that show that modern Japanese society was rife with protests and violence, particularly in the southwestern countryside, this study also debates the image of a conflict-free or conflict-averse, harmonious Japanese society. The assumption of a stable Japanese polity attributable to a “culture of silence,” or a consensusoriented , conflict-averse society was made by the following political culturalists: Krauss et al., Conflict in Japan; Pharr, Losing Face; Richardson, Political Culture of Japan. 20. Zolberg, “Formation of New States”; Zolberg et al., Escape from Violence; Castles and Miller, Age of Migration. 21. Originally, Zolberg (“Formation of New States”) narrowed his application of the “emigration qua decompressor” model to strictly political asylum-seeker emigration under state persecution. In his later analysis, Zolberg, together with Suhrke and Aguayo, questions the efficacy of a clear-cut dichotomy of voluntarism versus involuntarism in classifying mass migration that occurs in hard times. They suggest that it is important to pay attention to concrete situations in which each emigrant has to make a rational calculation of costs of leaving against staying home. This is because each emigrant’s choice is oftentimes constrained by a larger matrix of political conditions beyond a single emigration policy—the state’s various yet often deficient policies against the poor in terms of welfare, insurance, or poverty relief, to name a few. For example, the Irish emigration in the midst of the economic crisis in the mid nineteenth century is attributable to an “opportunistic deportation policy” by British rulers who were reluctant to amend the existing “institutional evils” linked to the impoverishment of the Irish subjects. Such a “quasi-forced” nature characterizes the Japanese emigration policy in that...