On Difficulties in the Church Fathers: The Ambigua, Volume I by Nicholas Constas, and: On Difficulties in the Church Fathers: The Ambigua, Volume II by Nicholas Constas (review)

The Eastern Church of the seventh century reinterpreted Greek philosophy in novel ways as it dealt with various heresies and developments in theology. This is seen nowhere more clearly than in the writings of Maximos ‘the Confessor’, who had his tongue cut out for continuing to teach a dyothelite Christology at odds with the imperially acclaimed Monothelite position. This two-volume set by Nicholas Constas is the first English translation of some of the most important writings of Maximos. It is well presented and sure to attract attention because of the significance of the ideas discussed.

Some of Maximos’s most philosophical works were written in reply to questions he received about the writings of earlier Church Fathers. His ‘Ambigua’ were written over a number of years in response to these questions and provide explanations of somewhat unclear wording in the writings of St Gregory the Theologian. They often use a mix of Neoplatonic, Stoic, and Aristotelian metaphysics and ethics to explain these issues which were not dry, abstract topics but central to the then-current debates on Christology. This work thus provides rich insights into how Gregory was received and reinterpreted in the context of the debates of the seventh century. It also presents the creative thinking of Maximos that in turn became foundational for Eastern theology.

Constas introduces the work of Maximos admirably, clearly explaining in his Introduction key concepts in Maximos’s thought as well as the nuances of specific Greek theological terminology. His endnotes on various words and phrases are clear and relevant and are well chosen. This makes some complex ideas accessible to modern readers who are unfamiliar with Greek theological metaphysics. The translation is fresh and consistent, and is in clear English yet retaining the flavour of the original. This shows that much thought was put into this work and Constas is to be commended.

Aristotelian categories and concepts were frequent in both Gregory and Maximos’s thought and this translation captures these terms and mindsets well. Gregory often discussed ideas such as monad, dyad, moved, causing to move, and so on, and Maximos explained the meaning of these clearly. He also showed how Gregory was not a cause of alarm for any seventh-century Christian who was suspicious of imported non-Christian ideas, and how a correct application of Greek philosophy created clarity in Christian theology.

Much of Gregory’s work was clearly related to his times and the current theological debates and the same is true of Maximos. The Confessor shows how Gregory was answering specific issues and thus how his words should not be misunderstood. Indeed, when properly understood, the teaching of Gregory becomes relevant to seventh-century heresies. For example, Maximos’s discussion of how the two natures in Christ should be contemplated is clear and relevant to current Eastern Orthodox–Oriental Orthodox debates. His explanation of when Christ should be seen as a single hypostasis or as two united natures overcomes several long-standing debated issues. Maximos creatively interpreted Gregory while remaining faithful to his position. In this he showed great intelligence yet integrity.

Not all of Maximos’s comments, however, were on controversial points or on contemplative theology, as he frequently referred to ascetic practices, the virtues, and the importance of crucifying the flesh. He discussed self-mortification in relation to the theology of Christ’s incarnation and avoided any dry, abstracted thought. For both Gregory and Maximos, real theology was a lived practice, and...