"In the Confident Hope of a Miracle": The Spanish Armada and Religious Mentalities in the Late Sixteenth Century

Within national and religious groups, as with individuals, ambivalent mentalities sometimes exist, which can threaten a sense of wholeness and lead to shifting alliances—and strange bedfellows—in terms of political and religious affinities. This can clearly be seen by analyzing the multifaceted movement known as the Reformation, both in its broad sweep and in particular aspects such as the Armada campaign. The historiography of the Reformation has focused over time on theological, intellectual, political, and social aspects of this complex phenomenon. Debates have raged over definitions, periodization, terminology, and a host of related issues.

Yet, not enough attention has been paid to the reality of the conflicting and often ambivalent loyalties and mentalities of the Reformation era. A particularly interesting area of inquiry is the Spanish Empire in Europe—in terms of its constituent members, its allies, and its enemies—especially in the context of the titanic struggle of the Spanish Armada. More specifically, the strongly Catholic convictions of the Portuguese, Italians, and Flemings who lived under Spanish rule, at times seriously conflicted with desires for greater autonomy or independence. This ambivalence can be seen in the range of attitudes and perceptions surrounding the Armada and its aftermath. The Spanish defeat could have set in motion a vigorous reaction against Spanish hegemony in Europe. A major reason that this did not happen was the religious factor. The Armada, although launched for a combination of reasons, sailed under the aura of a religious crusade. The religious mentalities of the period come into sharp and fascinating focus when viewed through this lens. This is true not only of Catholics, both within and outside of the Spanish Empire, but of Protestants as well. Not only the "facts" of the Armada campaign, but, perhaps even more so, the rumors, hopes, and fears of Catholic and Protestant Europe concerning its outcome, tell us a great deal about the depth of religious feelings in the late sixteenth century.

For many on the Catholic side, a political desire to see Spain defeated, or at least weakened, was often superseded by a religious desire to see the Catholic cause triumph. Realpolitik often gave way to religious fervor. Among many Protestants, as well, when religious and political goals clashed, religious convictions often took precedence.

By examining a wide range of sources—Catholic, Protestant, and Muslim—we can gain valuable insights into the complexity of cultural, national, and religious motivations in the early modern European and Mediterranean worlds. Thus, for example, why was Catholic support for the Armada generally so strong, support that, outside of Spain at least, was by no means a given, based on a host of political and economic rivalries? And, among the Protestants and Turks, how and why did religious convictions sometimes reinforce and sometimes transcend traditional alliances? This essay suggests that by looking at an "old" event—the Spanish Armada—in a new light, by analyzing not only the realities, but also the rumors and hopes for divine intervention surrounding it, an intriguing portrait emerges of both the complexity and vitality of early modern religious mentalities. In particular, as we shall see, many people in both Catholic and Protestant Europe awaited news of the Armada campaign "in the confident hope of a miracle." ¹

In the 1580's there were a number of problems facing Philip II of Spain, especially the ongoing revolt in the Netherlands. But the seemingly vast resources at Philip's disposal, together with a conviction that he was God's special agent in the protection and propagation of the Catholic faith, suggested that time and Providence were on his side. At the same time, a principal irritant to Philip and Spain was, increasingly, England, and its pragmatic Protestant ruler, Elizabeth I.

On several fronts, tensions that had been developing between England and Spain were...