Socialism in Civil Society

Near the end of the third and final volume of his masterpiece, Capital, Karl Marx raises an important issue. He writes, “The question to be answered next is: ‘What makes a class?’” Marx had much to say about social class, but he never answered his own question very clearly. The book ends a few lines later with a cryptic note from his long time collaborator, Friedrich Engels: “At this point the manuscript breaks off. —F.E.” Since then countless people have tried to clarify what Marx thought about class. One of the most productive efforts has been sustained by the sociologist Erik Olin Wright. He continues to argue persuasively that class relations constitute a fundamentally powerful force in world history.

From the perspective of “analytical Marxism,” Wright argues that the goals of socialism are both compatible with rigorous empirical sociological research and plausible. In recent writing, he has actively turned toward a more accessible, public orientation, which is best exemplified in his ambitious new book, Envisioning Real Utopias. In this project he seeks to document, in a manner intelligible to a broad audience, the main problems of capitalism and the realistic possibilities for overcoming them. The inherent tension in the phrase “real utopia” is purposeful. Wright aspires “to achieve a clear elaboration of workable institutional principles that could inform emancipatory alternatives to the existing world.”

The book is divided into three loosely related parts. The first offers a concise summary of the problems in capitalism, which have mostly been elucidated in his previous work. Capitalism perpetuates unnecessary human suffering, fosters consumerism, corrodes community, limits democracy, fuels militarism, and damages the natural environment. This part and those that follow are free of naiveté, hyperbole, and hysteria. Wright is diligently candid about tradeoffs and uncertainties.

The second part, the most interesting in my view, delineates a number of “real utopias.” It begins by clarifying the strengths and weaknesses of Marxist theory in addressing the problems of capitalism. Among the shortcomings, we find four key predictions of Marx unfulfilled. The crisis of overproduction in capitalism is not imminent. Society has not polarized into two classes. The working class appears unwilling and/or unable to advance its own interests. Revolutionary transformation has been unsuccessful in realizing socialistic ideals. Therefore, the transition from capitalism to socialism will not unfold the way Marx suggested it might.

But there is genuine possibility for “social power” in civil society. Therein people are impelled to make certain decisions by way of persuasion (in contrast to the bribery of the market or coercion of government). Under the right circumstances people could make collective decisions via inclusive, civil processes that are beneficial to many over the long run, thereby realizing the goals of socialism. But the first step is the expansion of imagination.

In this context, Wright reviews a broad range of real utopias (which are extant noncapitalistic activities that embody morally promising ideals), as well as realistic utopias (that is, comparable activities that appear viable but have not yet been attempted). He outlines large-scale frameworks, specifically market socialism and non-market democratic economics. He conjures untried radical programs, including “Unconditional Basic Income.”

But the most interesting possibilities are particular experiments currently underway. The participatory city budgeting of Porto Alegre, Brazil, offers a concrete model of inclusive government. The Mondragon worker-owned cooperatives of the Basque region exemplify collectively profitable and mutually beneficial enterprise. Wikipedia is celebrated as an egalitarian system for generating and sharing knowledge; thousands of unpaid editors participate in democratic governance while maintaining quality comparable to the profit-oriented and hierarchical organization of Encyclopedia Britannica. At a recent conference where Wright was discussing his book, he mentioned public libraries as an inspiring and ubiquitous example of socialism. At his local library in Madison, Wisconsin, he noted, tools and instruction materials for plumbing and other home improvement work are available as well as books, videos, and the usual stuff. There is more socialism alive in the world than we might notice at first glance.

The third part of Envisioning Real Utopias...