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  • Edgar Allan Poe and Machado de AssisHow did Machado Read Poe?1
  • Renata Philippov

In the nineteenth century, Brazil was still an empire closely linked to Portugal, struggling to attain its total political, economic, and cultural independence. Although independent in 1822, after three hundred years of Portuguese colonization, Brazil still had in the latter half of the century strong bonds both to its former colonizer as well as to Europe. In fact, the Brazilian emperor, Peter the Second, was a member of the Portuguese royal family. Brazilian trade also largely depended upon Portugal and its economic partners, such as England. Brazilian culture modeled itself on Europe, especially France (French was the prevailing foreign language of the ruling elite). In short, even after independence, Brazil still had to attain cultural, political, and economic independence.

In terms of literature, a reading public was in the process of being created. Those who did not read foreign languages had access to literary works published in installments in local newspapers and periodicals. These often consisted of translated works from French and English authors. Those who were educated and belonged to higher social brackets usually completed their studies in Europe. Universities in Brazil simply did not exist at this time.2 Works by acclaimed novelists, such as Victor Hugo, François-René de Chateaubriand and Charles Dickens, were imported, but only the privileged few had access to them and were able to read the foreign medium. There was, however, a market for translations and a reading public eager to access novels and poetry originally published abroad. Brazilian literature thus relied heavily on foreign (and especially, Portuguese) literature for its themes, characters, and plots.3

Brazil would have to wait for Machado de Assis to witness the onset of a uniquely Brazilian literature. Machado is regarded today as the most influential Brazilian writer of all time, whose works have been translated into many languages and have been the object of international critical examination. The son of an illiterate clothes-washer and born in a Rio de Janeiro slum, Machado de Assis was a free mulatto at a time when slavery still existed in his country. He was a self-taught man who supported himself through literature and journalism. Against all odds, Machado gradually gained recognition. He taught himself to read in English and French and even helped found the Brazilian Academy of Letters, something totally [End Page 221] unforeseen for someone of his background living in a society still deeply rooted in aristocratic values4 and prejudices.

Possessing a strong critical sense, Machado promoted the creation of a Brazilian literature, a project that he advocated in "Instinto de Nacionalidade" (Instinct of Nationality), an essay where he specifically criticized the pervading romantic paradigms of love, idealism, nature, and freedom of thought. Machado believed that literature should be used instead to reveal and critique social injustice. However, he was neither a Realist nor a Naturalist. Many of his writings combine detailed descriptions of his milieu with fantastic elements, irony, humor, and wit. It is in this respect that Machado de Assis's work converges with that of Edgar Allan Poe.

How did Machado, isolated in the provincial capital of Rio de Janeiro, gain access to Poe's works? How relevant would they be for Machado's literary project of creating a national literature that was distinct from European models? As we have noted, cultured Brazilians were familiar with European works that were either imported or translated in local newspapers. One such author was Charles Baudelaire5, whose translations of Poe's works into French were known in Brazil. Machado also had read Poe in English. In fact, he even published a Portuguese translation of "The Raven." He gave his version original touches by transforming the style and deliberately incorporating meter into his translation. It thus maintained a certain literary independence with regards to the original. In fact, Machado's version is considered to be the first, if not one of the best, Portuguese translations ever made of Poe's poetry.

Poe continued to influence Machado. Critics, such as Cunha (1995), Bellei (1992), and Daghlian (1999), have pointed out similarities between the two authors. Both authors developed a well...

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