Science for Development

SCIENCE FOR DEVELOPMENT BRIAN WILLIAMS* and GAVIN WILLIAMSt Africa is presented to us through the media as unable to feed itself, scarred by war, vulnerable to famine, and ravaged by disease. Pictures of starving children, blind elders, dying cows, and barren soils are burned into our memories. And they reflect the recent histories of some African countries. Africa's economies depend on the export of raw materials and crops and on the import of manufactured goods and tourists. Over none of these do African governments, let alone African people, exercise control. Over much of tropical Africa diseases, many of them borne by insect vectors, debilitate people and preclude development of the continent's agricultural potential. The diseases include malaria, guinea worm, leishmaniasis, trypanosomiasis, schistosomiasis, onchocerciasis , babesiosis, and theileriosis; the list is almost without end. How then should we address the problems of Africa? Although wars, dictatorships, and peculation contribute to scarcities, insecurities, and inequalities, social conflict and political corruption will be addressed by others in other places. But we are told that scientists can help solve Africa's problems. The green revolution, invoked to transform the Indian subcontinent, is now to be extended to Africa. How then are we to use science to help alleviate the condition of people in Africa? One often hears variations on the following thesis: a.People in Africa do not have enough food. b.Food production and security must therefore be increased. The authors thank the following friends and colleagues for their critical advice and comments: David Rogers, Ekkehard Kopp, Helena Cronin, John Hargrove, Priscilla Barrett , Robert Brightwell, Robert Dransfield, Sarah Randolph, and Susan MacMillan. Brian Williams would particularly like to thank Robert Brightwell, Robert Dransfield, and Joel Larinkoi, who are now part of the Olkirimatian and Shompole Community Development Project, for teaching him about the flies and for their enduring support and friendship. He is also grateful to the Royal Society for a guest fellowship in the Department of Zoology at the University of Oxford. *Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OXl 3PS, England. fSt. Peter's College, Oxford OXl 2DL, England.© 1992 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved. 0031-5982/93/3601-0802$01.00 64 Brian Williams and Gavin Williams ¦ Science for Development c.One of the major constraints to increasing livestock production in Africa is the prevalence of trypanosomiasis, a deadly disease in cattle and people. d.Effective ways of controlling the trypanosomes and the tsetse flies that transmit them among mammalian hosts are urgently needed. e.Several methods have been developed for controlling tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis, but for most of this century they have had a negligible impact on the disease. /. Tsetse and trypanosomiasis control programs have failed in the past because scientists and control workers have understood too little about both flies and parasites. g. To deal with this problem effectively we need more knowledge, and to acquire knowledge, we need more research. The argument from a to g is reasonable, and many other diseases could be used in place of trypanosomiasis. Thousands of scientists are conducting research in Africa (g), assuming that this will lead to better disease control, to better health for cattle and humans, and eventually to increased food production (a). However, experience shows that doing lots of g in the past has not led to the resolution of a. Why should doing even more of g in the future produce practical solutions to a? Our argument is narrowed to the study of tsetse flies and trypanosomiasis . However, our analysis may well be relevant to other vector-borne diseases and raises more general questions about the practice of scientific research in Africa. Tsetse Flies and Trypanosomiasis Trypanosomes are transmitted among mammals by blood-sucking tsetse flies (Glossina spp.). The disease they cause occurs both in cattle, where it is called nagana (from nakane, Zulu), and in people, where it is called sleeping sickness. There are three main groups of tsetse flies, which are found in riverine, forest, and savanna habitats. Several species of trypanosome cause nagana. Trypanosoma gambiense causes an endemic form of sleeping sickness, common in western and central Africa, and a more virulent parasite, T. rhodesiense, causes an epidemic form...