Death Twice over: Dualism of Metaphor and Realia in 12th-Century Hebrew Crusading Accounts

This article analyzes the peculiar phrase "being killed a second time" referring to the Jews, which is found in the Hebrew accounts of the First Crusade in 1096. Through a comparison with and analysis of Christian hagiography and medieval Latin documents using the same phrase, the study shows that there is a dual meaning of this metaphor. On the one hand, the phrase conveys the Jewish martyrs' strong commitment to their God by showing their willingness to die twice at the hands of crusaders; on the other hand, it alludes to ambiguous and questionable behavior of forced converts or to indecisive Jewish behavior in the face of forced conversion.

Converts were perceived as dead once they left Judaism. Their first "death" could have been reversed either by martyrdom or by returning to their original creed. Second death, therefore, could refer to martyrdoms of converts. Through a second death these Jews achieved their atonement and exoneration. Most of the converts, however, "came back to life" upon their return to Judaism.

The metaphor reveals that conversion to Christianity constituted a far more serious and common problem than the Jewish authors could admit openly. At the same time, "being killed a second time" discloses the sources' polemical and apologetic tone. Despite the rigid image held of the Ashkenazic community in several modern studies, the analysis of the metaphor reveals a compassionate community, with a sympathetic attitude and realistic approach toward the converts.