Samson Agonistes and the Politics of Restoration Sport

The raising of Maypoles throughout England in the spring of 1660 signified more than the return of monarchy; the Maypoles also symbolized the rejection of Interregnum ordinances that had rendered unlawful the traditional pastimes of the people. The ascension of Charles II and the subsequent proliferation of activities that were officially condemned by Interregnum leaders—as well as the king's patronage of and participation in such activities—assured the representational volatility of sport in polemics and literature. In Samson Agonistes, Milton's use of the term "sport" to signify activities involving "sword-players, and every sort / Of gymnic artists, wrestlers, riders, [and] runners" deviates from the biblical account of Samson's trials: such sports are neither mentioned nor implied in Judges, which offers "sport" as a term betokening "jest." ¹ Milton's decision to widen the biblical definition of sport should be understood as a key component of his allegorical critique of Restoration monarchy and culture.

According to Christopher Durston, one of the "prime targets of the puritan reformers" during the Interregnum was the traditional festive calendar, along with the sports, games, and pastimes of the English people. ² The battles waged between royalists and parliamentarians in the 1630s—over the legality and morality of the Sabbath day sports endorsed by Charles I in the 1633 reissuance of his father's Book of Sports—ended abruptly with the victory of the New Model Army in the Civil War. The official burnings of the Book of Sports in 1643 were followed by legislation declaring that "no person or persons shall hereafter upon the Lord's-day, use, exercise, keep, maintain, or be present at any . . . Games, Sport or Pastime whatsoever." ³ Subsequent ordinances of 1653, 1654, and 1657 extended the legislation to include such sports as animal baiting, cockfighting, and horse racing. Though in recent years most cultural historians have supported Kenneth L. Parker's argument that the "gap between regulation and enforcement [of such policies] . . . remained quite wide" throughout the Interregnum, the government's strict legislation marked the official death of sport in England between 1642 and 1660. ⁴

Durston partially attributes the failure to enforce these strict policies to the resistance of the English people, "who for the most part viewed [regulation] with a withering scorn and contempt, and defiantly refused to abandon their traditional practices." ⁵ Especially in the months immediately prior to Charles's return, the people rebelled against efforts to suppress their sports with notable zeal. In Bristol, just two months before the Restoration, justices condemning the ancient sports of Shrovetide were violently beaten in the streets. ⁶ In Oxford one month later, Maypoles were erected in outright defiance of the university chancellor's orders to pull them down. ⁷ The evidence from such cases, as well as the general persistence of sport throughout the Interregnum, indicates that the English people were ready for the official return of the old pastimes by 1660. ⁸

In the months leading up to Charles's return, the new government capitalized on the rising national anti-moralist sentiment, especially among the citizenry of London. ⁹ Through its calculated use of rhetoric and symbols to exaggerate the actual oppressiveness of Interregnum culture, the new regime presented itself as a liberator of the people. The Maypoles that dotted the countryside and the elaborate celebrations that occurred on the day of the king's procession through London, on 29 May 1660, worked to erase the cultural austerity popularly associated with Interregnum culture. What Laura Knoppers has whimsically referred to as a "decidedly unpuritanical celebration" was marked by the ringing of bells, the mass consumption of alcohol, and the return of the old pastimes. ¹⁰

While Charles was careful not to repeat the mistakes of his father, issuing a firm proclamation against abuses on the Lord's Day as soon as he acquired power, his government sought a deliberate return...