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Tea,Gender,andDomesticityin Eighteenth-CenturyEngland BETHKOWALESKI-WALLACE In1662whenCatherineofBraganzamarriedCharlesII,herdowry included500,000poundssterling,thepossessionofTangiers,therights tofreetradewithBrazilandtheEastIndies,and"theislandofBom- bay."1HermarriagethussecuredEngland'spre-eminentdomainoverthe easterntradingroutesandhelpedtousherinwhathasbeencalled England'sfirstempire.ConventionalwisdomcreditsCatherinefor bringingtoEnglandthedomestichabitofdrinkingtea.InEdmund Waller'scommemorativepoem,"OfTea,commendedbyherMajesty,"2 teawascelebratedasthe"bestofherbs"whichaidsthefancy,represses "thosevaporswhichtheheadinvade,"andwhich"keepsthepalaceofthe soulserene."AcknowledgingCatherineandhernativePortugalfor showingtheBritishthewayto"thefairregion,wheretheSundoesrise," WallerpubliclylinkedthedrinkingofteatotheQueen,therebypromot- ingitsstatusasbothadefinitivelyBritishandfeminineactivity. OfcourseteahadbeenpartoftheBritishscenebefore;thefirst recordedinstanceofthewordteainEnglishwasin1615.3Thefirst advertisementforteaappearedintheMercuriusPoliticusin1658,and SamuelPepystastedhisfirstcuptwoyearslater.By1661,themale clienteleoftheLondoncoffeehouseswereequallyenjoyingcoffee,tea, andchocolate.4Nonetheless,womenandteadrinkingweretobecome linkedinimportantways,despitethefactthatnothinginherentlymakes 131 132/KOWALESKI-WALLACE teaafemininecommodity.Intheearlydecadesoftheeighteenthcentury, whilemanymencontinuedtoenjoythebenefitsofteadrinking(wethink ofDr.Johnson'slegendarytwoquartteapot),teacametohavespecial significanceinthelivesofwomen.Asearlyas1694—only22yearsafter CatherineofBraganza'smarriage—Meilefont,whoappearsinCon- greve'sTheDoubleDealer,satirizedtheladiesasretiringto"teaand scandal,accordingtotheirancientcustom,"5andsomethingappearsto havebeenatstakeinthepublicperceptionthatwomenandteadrinking hadhadalong—andinevitable—history. Ineighteenth-centurypopularliterature,innewspapers,journals,and poetry,teafunctionsastheimageofaforcewhichsimultaneouslyfacili- tatesanddisruptsEnglishdomesticity.Oftendepictedatthecenterofthe domesticscene,tea-drinkingwomenaresimilarlyrepresentedasadvanc- ingordestroyingthebasisofasoundEnglisheconomy.Inarangeof texts,theteatableistheplacewherecivilizationissimultaneouslypro- motedandundermined.Yet,asIwillargueinthisessay,muchofwhatis saidaboutthedrinkingofteaandtheteatablehasmoretodowiththe culturaldefinitionofwomanhood—and,inparticular,withwoman's placeindomesticeconomy—thanitdoeswiththecommodityitself. Thus,thetensioninthediscussionofthisparticularcommodityisrele- vantforwhatitcantellusaboutthecultofdomesticityandaboutthe classdistinctionswhichpermeatethisidea. Earlydocumentscelebratingthesalutarybenefitsofteaaremostoften primitiveformsofadvertisement.InanearlyFrenchexamplefrom1687, oftencitedbylaterBritishauthorities,NicolasdeBlegnydescribed"Ie BonusageduThé,duCaff),etduChocolatepourlaPréservationet pourlaguérisondesMaladies."6RepresentativeoftheBritishsceneis NahumTate's"PoemuponTeawithaDiscourseonItsSov'rainVirtues andDirectionsintheUsesofItforHealth."7Tatepromotesteadrinking asapanaceaforallills;amongitsotherattributes,itmakeslawyersmore eloquent,allowsscientiststoseethesecretsofnature,helpsmusiciansto makemusic,artiststodraw,andpoetstowrite.ThatNahumTatewas appointedpoetlaureatein1692helpstoexplainhisownenchantment withakeyproductoftheEastIndiaTradingCompany,thenbeing charteredbyhispatrons,WilliamandMary. SimilartoTate'sapproachisthatofPeterMotteux,whoin1712wrote APoeminPraiseofTea}InaprefatorylettertoTheSpectator,Mot- teuxidentifieshimselfasone"engrost"by"myCHINAandINDIAN trade,andallthedistractingVarietyofaDoyly,andreadytocrossthe seasagaintoRecruitthosenewbranchesofForeignSilks,Lace,Linens, Pictures,andOtherGoods."Littlewonder,then,thatMotteuxshouldso praisethesalutaryeffectsofoneofhisowncommodities.Buthis Tea,Gender,andDomesticity/133 descriptionoftheeffectsofteauponthewinedrinkermostclearly suggestshowgenderedcategoriesweretohaveapartinthisdiscussion. Explainingthebenefitsofteaoverwine,Motteuxwrites: Idrinkandthekindlystreamsarise, Wine'sVapourflags,andsoonsubsidesanddies. ThefriendlySpiritsbrightenmineagain, RepeltheBrute,andre-inthronetheMan. TherisingCharmerwithaPleasingRay DawnsontheMind,introducesDay. SoitsparentwithpresentingLight, RecallsDistinction,anddisplacesNight. Motteux'sdescriptionmakesteaquiteliterallythedrinkoftheEnlighten- ment,asitisthesubstancethatbanishesthedarknessofwineandthe forcesassociatedwithit,inparticular,brutishnessandanimalisticbehav- ior.Inhisaccount,teabothhumanizesandcivilizes;itsavestheBritish gentlemanwhowouldotherwiseremaininhisdrunkenstupor.Whatis more,Motteux'sverseechoesWaller's:bothpraiseteaasanantidoteto those"vapours"raisedbywine.IfaBritishgentlewomanservesthistea, shealsoparticipatesinthisprocessofenlightenment,refinement,and civilization.Motteux'schoiceofthephrase"risingCharmer"fortea suggestshehasinmindsomemetaphoricconnectionbetweenwoman andthesubstancesheemploystodomesticateherman.Bothteaand woman"actupon"themaninneedofhumanizing,andteastandsonly asapartialrepresentationofalargerfeminizingandcivilizingforceat workinBritishculture.Inthisscenethatforcewhichultimatelycivilizes isimplicitlyFreeTrade,asitisFreeTradethatprovidescommoditieslike tea. MotteuxhadthegoodsensetodedicatehispoemtoRichardSteele, whoreciprocatedwithabitoffreeadvertisingforMotteux'swarehouse.9 (Steeleapparentlytookspecialpleasureinviewing"thefinestLacesheld upbythefairestHands;andthereexaminedbythebeauteousEyesofthe BuyersthemostdelicateCambricks,Muslins,andLinnens.")Giventhe pro-tradestanceofAddisonandSteeleinTheSpectator,itisscarcely surprisingtofindthemendorsingMotteux'spositionabouttea.Inthe Spectatorno.10Addisonrecommendsthat"allwell-regulatedFamilies ...setapartanHoureveryMorningforTeaandBreadandButter."In addition,headvisesthem"fortheirGoodtoorderthisPapertobe punctuallyservedup,andtobelookeduponasaPartoftheTeaEquipage ."10AddisonandSteelerepeatedlyenvisiontheteatableasasceneof instructionandcorrection,aplaceforenforcingthedomesticvirtues. Justas,inMotteux'sterms,teaistobeimbibedasasalutarysubstance, sotooistheSpectatortobetakendaily. 134/KOWALESKI-WALLACE ForWilliamCowper,asforPeterMotteux,theteatableaffordsthe opportunityforarespitefromthe"brutish"sideofmanhood.Unlike Motteux,however,Cowperalsoplaysonthedifferencebetweenthe "inside"andthe"outside,"makingthesiteoftheteatableafortress againsttheworld.Book4of"TheTask""describeswhatisarguablythe quintessentialdomesticscene: Nowstirthefire,andclosetheshuttersfast, Letfallthecurtains,wheelthesofaround, And,whilethebubblingandloud-hissingurn Throwsupasteamycolumn,andthecups, Thatcheerbutnotinebriate,waitoneach, Soletuswelcomepeacefulev'ningin. Recognizablebynowistheoppositionbetweentheclarityofmind broughtonbythedrinkingofteaandtheinebriationbroughtonby wine.Herethatclarityofmindismostconducivetothereadingofthe newspaper,anactivitywhichisdescribedatlengthinlinesthatfollow. WhatCowper'sdescriptionrecreateswellis,ofcourse,thesenseof coziness,ofthefamiliar(withallitsallusiontofamily),ofbeingsafely protectedandisolatedfromtheworldofmenandmen'sbusiness. Domesticityreigns,yetnohumanperson—andcertainlynoparticular woman—isdescribedasresponsibleforitsimplementation.Anunidenti- fiedbeing,spokentothroughthedirectaddress,stirsthefire,closesthe curtains,wheelsthesofaround.Metonymyreplacesagency:cupswait. Inthelinesthatfollow,Cowpergoesontodescribetheworldantithet- icaltothesceneattheteatable: Notsuchhisev'ning,whowithshiningface Sweatsinthecrowdedtheatre,and,squeez'd Andbor'dwithelbow-pointsthroughbothhissides, Out-scoldstherantingactoronthestage: Norhis,whopatientstandstillhisfeetthrob, Andhisheadthumps,tofeeduponthebreath Ofpatriots,burstingwithheroicrage, Orplacemen,alltranquillityandsmiles. Thisisaworldtowhichnorespectablewomanmighthaveaccess,andit istheworldwhichtherespectablewomanpouringteahasthepowerto makevanish.YetonlyoncedoesCowperexplicitlyevokethepresenceof anyspecificwomen.Hedescribesthemas"thefair,/Thougheloquent themselves"whofeartobreakthesilenceofhisreading.Yetdespitethe curiousabsenceoffemalebodies,thissceneresembleswhatisculturally encodedasthe"feminine":hereoneexperiencestheeventsoftheworld Tea,Gender,andDomesticity/135 vicariously,neverengagingdirectlyinanyactionbutonlyimagining whatitmightbeliketoparticipateintheworld: Tispleasantthroughtheloop-holesofretreat Topeepatsuchaworld;toseethestir OfthegreatBabel,andnotfeelthecrowd; Toheartheroarshesendsthroughallhergates Atasafedistance,wherethedyingsound Fallsasoftmurmuronth'uninjur'dear. Itis,ofcourse,thespeaker'smaleprivilegetorejectthiscacophonous scene,tochoosethesanctuaryofthesilent"fair"overthenoiseofthe crowd.Inaninterestingmove,CowperpersonifiesBabelasfemale, attributingtoherboththe"crowd,"massesofundisciplinedbodies,and the"roar,"thepowerfulnoisethatissuesfromthosebodies—perhapsin keepingwithBiblicalallusionswhichidentifyBabelasaplaceofexces- sivelanguage.Thus,theoppositioninthispoeminitiallyappearsasthat ofhomeversusworld,insideversusoutside,feminineversusmasculine, quietorsilentversusnoisy.Andyetthenoiseofthefemale-personified citycouldbesaidtoproblematizethesilenceoftherefined,bodilesslady whosepresencethesceneevokes.Whathasbeenbanishedfromthe inside,namelythedisruptivepotentialofabodyimagedasfemale, showsupontheoutside.TheveryexistenceofBabelasaplacetobe viewedthroughtheloop-hole,oropeninginthefortification,compro- misesCowper'salignmentofthefemalewiththefeminineandthe domestic:whatistopreventthewomanontheinsidefromjoiningthe crowdontheoutside?Whatistopreventherunexpressedeloquence fromeruptingintoa"roar"? Whiletheupper-classteatableoccasionsmalefantasiesaboutproperly domesticatedwomen,thelower-classteatableproducesstrongerpolem- ics.Forexample,inresponsetotheprivilegingoftheteatableasthe centerofdomesticlife,JonasHanwayin1757wroteanotoriousdiatribe againstthe"pernicious"habitofteadrinking.In"AnEssayonTea" (publishedasthesecondvolumeofabookentitledAJournalofEight DaysJourney),12Hanwaybeginsbyrefutingtheargumentforthesalu- taryeffectsoftea.WhatTateidentifiedastheenergizingeffectsoftea, Hanwaydepictsastheopposite.Hanwaywrites,"thiscustomofsipping warmliquorsaffordsagratification,whichbecomessohabitual,as hardlytoberefined.Ithasprevailedoveragreatpartoftheworld;some ofthemosteffeminatepeopleonthefaceofthewholeearth,whose examplewe,asawise,active,andwarlikenation,wouldleastdesireto imitate,arethegreatestsippers"(17).Tomakehispointstillmore explicit,Hanwayadds,"ImeantheChinese,amongwhomthefirstranks 136/KOWALESKI-WALLACE ofpeople,thoughtheyexercisethemselveswiththebowandarrow,have adapteditasakindofprincipletopreferanylabourorusefulofficeof life:andyet,withregardtothecustomofsippingtea,weseemtoact morewantonlyandabsurdlythaneventheChinese"(17).Hanwayhasa specificpolemic:toensurethebuildingofastrongarmyforEngland's defense.13Accordingtohislogic,teaisattherootofEngland'smilitary weakness.Thushewrites,"Whatanarmyhaveginandteadestroyed!" (89).Tealiterallyandmetaphoricallyworksagainstthebuildingofa strongmilitarystate.Literally,teaisadrainonBritisheconomy:gold andsilverleaveEnglandinpaymentforthehugeamountsofteacon- sumedbytheBritishpublic."Thestressofmyargument,"writesHan- way,"islaidupontheconsumptionoftea,asanarticlewhichdrainsus, mostunprofitably,ofourgoldandsilver"(173).Likeotherluxurious, importedproducts—silk,inparticular—teaupsetsthebalanceoftrade.14 Hanwayarguesthatmoneyspentontheimportingofteaoughttobe spentinsteadonimprovingthecountry(189).15Butthisinsistenceontea asaliteraldrainontheBritisheconomydependsheavilyupontheideaof teaasasubstancewhichmetaphoricallyrobsordepletesEnglandofits "vital"and"precious"substances.Excessiveimportingis,inthissense,a vitiatingactivity,onewhichdrainsEnglandofwhatitneedsinorderto be"wise,active,andwarlike."Ifthestateisgenderedasmale,16then drinkingimportedteaemasculatesit,rendersitimpotent. Inanearliertext,whichHanwayprobablyreadintranslation,Simon Paulicomparedthepracticeofdrinkingteatoavenesection,ablood lettingorbleeding,andhesimilarlyurgedwesternmentoavoiddrinking foreign,importedsubstances:"IattempttopreserveallEuropebyper- suadingitsInhabitantsnottoexchangeoursalutaryRegimenforthatof theAsiaticsandChinesebyfollowingtheircustomofdrinkingtea."17 EvenDr.Johnson,despitesomeavoweddifferencesofopinionwith Hanwayontheeffectsoftea,agreedthatteadrinkingweakensastrong, muscularconstitution:"teaisoneofthestatedamusementsoftheidle andluxurious.Thewholemodeoflifeischanged,everykindofvolun- tarylabor,everyexercisethatstrengthenedthenervesandthemuscle,is fallenintodisuse."18ThoughJohnsonshiftshisemphasisfromtheprod- ucttothelifestyleassociatedwithit,hisargumenttoosuggestsaconcern withthevitiatingeffectsoftea:Englandlosessomethingofitsmanly vitalitywhenitsuccumbstotheaffectationsassociatedwithteadrinking. ThesenseofteaasadrainingsubstanceisenhancedbyoneofHan- way'slengthierdigressionsintothestateofEnglishnurses.Echoinga commonconcernwiththehighmortalityrate,particularlyamongwet- nursedchildren,19HanwayblamesteadrinkingforEngland'slackof militarypreparedness."Ifwearetobeafreepeople,"hewrites,"wemust Tea,Gender,andDomesticity/137 beinacapacitytodefendourselves"(55).Theworkingpoorareessential tothisgoal,astheywillfurnishthe120,000mennecessaryforwar(50). Butthewetnurseswhoaretoraisethisfuturearmyarespendingtheir moneyontearatherthanonnutritiousfood.Asaresult,thechildren theyraiseareweaklyorsicklyortheydie.Hanwayiscertainthatthe effectofthenurses'drinkinghotliquidsisnotsalutary,andheplacesa pig'stailinboilingwatertoprovehispoint(anexperimentthatDr. Johnsonlaterridiculedinhisreviewofthebook).Hearguesthathottea isa"liquidfire"whichextinguishesthat"Prometheanfire"inthebreast milkwhich"noliquidfirecaneverrestoreagain"(109).Hefurther attacksthenurse'steadrinkingasthecenterofherdissipatedlifestyle, oneerroneouslyspentinthepursuitofluxury;"luxuryhasintroducedan artificialappetite,whichmustneedsmakegreathavocamongstman- kind"(64). HereHanwaymakesaseriesofrapidconnectionsworthpausingover. First,theconcernwiththepoornutritionofthenursingwomanisnot unreasonable.LaterinthecenturyJohnLettsomalsodescribedthemal- nutritionwhichresultedwhenscarcefamilyresourceswentforthepurchaseofexpensivetea :"Theseeffects[ofmalnutrition]arenottobe attributedsomuchtothepeculiarpropertiesofthiscostlyvegetable,as tothewantofproperfood,whichtheexpenseofthe[tea]deprivedthese poorpeoplefromprocuring."Similarly,ElizaHaywood'sFemaleSpec- tatordescribeshowteadrinkingdisruptsfamilialeconomyandperverts femaletaste.JohnCarefulwritesintocomplainofthetrademan'swife whoselifeisconsumedbyherpassionfortea:"Theteatable,asmanaged insomefamilies,costsmoretosupportthanwouldmaintaintwochil- drenatNurse.YetisthisbymuchtheLeastPartoftheEvil;itistheutter DestructionofallOeconomy—theBaneofgoodhousewifery—andthe SourceofIdleness,byengrossingthoseHourswhichoughttobe employedinhonestandprudentEndeavortoaddto,orpreservewhat Fortune,orformerIndustryhasbestowed."Writingastheeditor,Hay- woodsharesJohnCareful...

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