Historical Fiction: David, Marat, and Napoleon

Historical Fiction: David,Marat,andNapoleon* heatherMcpherson "Therearetwowaysofunderstandingportraiture—eitherashistoryoras fiction"-Baudelaire,1846.' JTortraitshavelongcountedamongJacques-LouisDavid'smost admiredworks,althoughtheartistandhiscontemporariesclearlycon- sideredthemsecondarytothehistorypaintings.2Theportraits,which typicallyemphasizeverisimilitude,rigorouscomposition,andspecific surfacedetail,appearstraightforwardandunproblematicincomparison withthedidactic,highlyreferentialhistorypaintings.Infact,inthe literaturetherehasbeenawidespreadtendencytosegregateDavid's portraitsfromtherestofhisacademicproduction.3Forexample,inhis 1907studyofDavidasportraitist,ProsperDorbecreferstotwoartistsin totaldisaccordwithinDavid—ahideboundantiquarianandaliberated masterenamoredofnatureandtruth.4Althoughitmaybeconvenientto treatDavid'sportraitsasaseparateaestheticentity,inthecaseofofficial portraits,suchasthoseofMaratandNapoleon,nocleardividingline canbedrawn.Thesepubliceffigies,whichdemonstrablywerepainted forideologicalpurposes,fallmidwaybetweenportraitureandhistory painting. ItisthishybridrealmthatIamdesignatinghistoricalfiction.Ihave purposelyavoidedthemoreusualterm,portraithistorié,whichgenerally 177 178 / McPHERSON denotesfancydressportraits,likethoseofNattier,inwhichcontempo- rariesparadeasgodsorgoddesses,orennobledportraitsofthetype paintedbyReynolds,whichself-consciouslyalludetoclassicalproto- types.David'sofficialportraits,inparticularthoseofMarat(fig.1)and Napoleon(fig.2),comemuchclosertohistoricalfictionintheaccepted literarysenseoftheterm.ThereferencehereistoLukács,althoughIam somewhatsubvertinghisargumentbypushingbacktheconceptofhis- toricalfictiontotheFrenchRevolutionratherthanthefallofNapo- leon.6IalsorejectthecontentionthatDavid'sattempttocollapseartinto politicalritualendedin1794.7Inpointoffact,Ishallargue,thisprocess reacheditsapogeeunderNapoleon;alivinglegendreplacedthecultof theRevolutionanditsmartyrs.WalterFriedlaenderrightlyinsistedupon theprofoundoriginalityoftherevolutionary"martyrportraits"andthe Napoleoniccommissions(22ff).InthepresentarticleIshallbriefly explorethatoriginality,showinghowDavid'smostexplicitlypolitical (evenhagiographie)portraitimages—thecelebratedMaratandthe Napoleoniceffigies—functionideologicallybyseamlesslymelding togetherfactandfiction.Intheprocess,theytransfigurehistory. Intheacademichierarchyandeighteenth-centurycriticaldiscourse, portraitureoccupiedapoorlydefinedpositionbelowthatofhistory painting.Althoughtheportraitportrayedmankind,unlikehistorypaint- ingitrepresentedaspecificindividualandwasbasedonimitationrather thaninvention.8Thisdifferentiationfosteredapatronizingattitude towardportraiturethathadalreadybeenarticulatedinthesixteenth centurybyMichelangeloandhisfollowers.InhisHetSchilderboeck (1604),KarelvanManderconcludedthatportraiturewasa"bypathof art."9Butthepurportedintellectualinferiorityofportrait-paintinginno waydiminishedthedemandforportraitsinRenaissanceItalyor eighteenth-centuryFrance.Leadingportraitists,suchasQuentindeLa Tour,enjoyedwidespreadrenownanddemandedhighprices.AsLome Campbellargues(151),portraitistsenjoyedsocialasopposedtointellec- tualrespectability.Writingin1747,thecriticLafontdeSaint-Yenne decriedtheoverabundanceofportraitsattheSalons,butadmittedthat portraiturewasthemostreliablemeansofearningalivingforartists.10 AndSaint-Yenne'splaintsetthepatternfortherestofthecentury. Althoughcriticscontinuedtocomplainoftheoverabundanceofpor- traitsattheSalons,theytendedtobemorefavorablydisposedtoward portraitsofrulersandgreatmen,whichcouldbeconstruedasmorally exemplary."TheComted'Angiviller'spolicyofcommissioninglifesize statuesofFrance'sgrandshommes,likethecommissioningofpaintings depictingnationalisticsubjects,washistoric,rational,andpatrioticinits aims.12Buttherepresentationofgrandeurwasbynomeanseasy. DavidandHistoricalFiction / 179 Figure1.J.-L.David,DeathofMarat,1793(Brussels,MuséesroyauxdesBeauxarts). PhotoGiraudonreproducedbypermission. 180 / McPHERSON Figure2.J.-L.David,BonaparteCrossingtheAlpsatSaint-Bernard,1800(Malmaison, Musée national). DavidandHistoricalFiction / 181 Houdon,thepre-eminentneoclassicalsculptorofthelateeighteenth century,specializedinportraitsoftheleadingstatesmenofhisday,from VoltairetoWashington.Yetironically,Houdon'scontributiontothe grandshommesseries,AdmiraldeTourville,1781,isoneofhisleast successfuleffigies. Throughouttheeighteenthcenturyroyalportraitswerecommissioned fromleadingartistsbythecrownandexhibitedpubliclyattheSalons. Duringthe1780stherewasaconcertedefforttorepairMarie Antoinette'ssaggingpopularitybycommissioningedifyingportraitsof theQueen,notablytheGreuzian,maternalimagepaintedbyMme.Vigée Lebrun,whichwasbelatedlyexhibitedattheSalonof1787(fig.3).13 VigéeLebrun,followingDavid'sadvice,basedhercompositionona HolyFamilybyRaphael.14Althoughthepicturewaspraisedforits decorativequalities,JosephBailliohasconvincinglyargued,inadiscussionoftheinstabilityofthepainting 'smeaning,thatVigéeLebrun's hybridportrayaloftheregalandthematernalfailedtocoalescein1787. Despitethisportrait'seloquentrhetoricanddistinguishedpedigree,it founderedasapieceofpoliticalpropaganda(Baillio,59).I5Ironically, becauseportraitselevatetheindividualandemphasizethespecific,clas- sicizingcritics,suchasLessingandWinckelmann,excludedportraiture fromtheiraestheticconsiderations,assumingthataportraitcouldnot easilyfunctionasanexemplumvirtutis.16David'sofficialportraits,how- ever,provethecontrary—alessonthathasnotbeenlostonsubsequent authoritarianregimes. AlthoughDavid'scriticalreputationrestedprimarilyuponhisskillasa historypainter,hepracticedportraiturethroughouthiscareer.Theartist 'searly,ruggedlyrealisticportraitsoftenrepresentintimates,suchas FrançoisBuronandhiswife,whoposedin1769.OneofDavid'searliest publicsuccesses,however,whichwasexhibitedattheSalonof1781on hisreturnfromRome,isthespectacularequestrianPortraitofCount Potocki(Warsaw,NationalMuseum)(fig.4),whichanticipatesthe BonaparteCrossingtheAlps,executedalmosttwentyyearslater. Althoughpaintedforaprivateclient,thegrandstyleandambitiousscale revealedthegeniusofahistorypainter.17IndebtedtobothRubensand VanDyck,thePortraitofPotockialsoillustratesDavid'spainterlybrio andpropensityforthetheatrical.Itwas,however,thevicissitudesof historyitself—theFrenchRevolutionandthetriumphofNapoleon— thatprovidedthescriptforDavid'smostinspiredpiecesofhistorical fiction:thelostPortraitofLePelletier,theDeathofMarat,andBona- parteCrossingtheAlpsatSaint-Bernard. David'srivetingDeathofMarat(Brussels,MuséesroyauxdesBeaux- Arts)(fig.1)wascommissionedbytheConventionon14July1793,the 182 / McPHERSON Figure3.VigéeLeBrun,MarieAntoinetteandHerChildren,1787(Versailles,Musée nationalduChâteau).Photocredit:Giraudon/ArtResource,NewYork. DavidandHistoricalFiction / 183 Figure4.J.-L.DavidPortraitofCountPotocki,1781(Warsaw,NationalMuseum).Photo Giraudonreproducedbypermission. 184 / McPHERSON dayafterMarat'sassassination,andcompletedinmidOctober,whenit wasexhibitedaspendanttothePortraitofLePelletieronthePresident's tribunal.18TheConventionalsoorderedengravingsofthetwomartyrs' portraits:1000impressionsweretobedistributedtorepresentativesof thepeopleandthedepartments.David,anadmirerofthedetestedand widelyfearedradicaljournalist,hadvisitedMaratthedaybeforethe assassinationandobservedhimatworkinhisbathtub.19Itwasthis attitudethatheselectedforhiscommemorativeportrait.Inadditionto paintingMarat'sofficialeffigy,Davidorganizedthefuneralceremony andcampaignedactivelyforthehonorsofthePantheonthatwerebriefly accordedto"l'amidupeuple."20 David'scommemorativeportraitisnotalikenessintheordinarysense. Contemporaryaccountsunderlinethephysicaldebilitiesandlaideurof Marat,whichcontributedtohiscultasmartyrandlaterprovideda paradigmoftherevolutionarydementiaoftheTerror.21Themostreli- ablepictorialdocumentisarepresentationofMaratwriting,purportedly drawnfromlifebyhisfriendLaplacein1793(Versailles,MuséeLam- binet).Instead,Davidstressesdramaandheightenedemotion(tradi- tionalattributesofhistorypainting)attheexpenseofobjectivityand individualphysiognomicpeculiarities(definingcharacteristicsofportrai- ture).Thereasonsforthistheatricalizationandamplificationofthemodelareinthiscaserathertransparent.InoptingtoportrayMaratasa revolutionarymartyr—inproducingaveritablepiet×Davidturnedto traditionalreligiousiconography,specificallythedeathofChrist,and Caravaggesquelighting,ashasfrequentlybeennoted.Hemayalsohave beeninfluencedbythetableauofMarat'sassassinationondisplayin Curtius'sCabinetdeCire,whichMmeTussaudmentionsinhermem- oirs.22Inaddition,thereisapossibleantiquesourceforthecomposi- tion.23David'spaintingofMaratwasclearlyintendedtofunctionasan exemplumvirtutis,asthepublicdisplayofthecanvasandthecommis- sionfortheengravingattest.Theengravingdoesnotduplicatethepaint- ing,however.Instead,itisbasedonDavid'sdazzlingpenandinkdraw- ingofMarat'sdetachedhead(Versailles,Muséenationalduchateau) (fig.5),whichwasalsomodeledinwaxbyMmeTussaud.Thedisturb- inglylifelikegazeseemstosignalMarat'scontinuedvigilanceevenafter death.24Thepure,almostchildlikefeaturesofMarat,togetherwiththe asymmetricalgaze,thepeculiarframing,andthemesmericstipplingand crosshatchingeffects,createaniconofextraordinaryintensity. Theelaboratefuneralceremonies,likeDavid'spaintedeffigy,gave visualformtothemythandofficialsanctiontotheMaratcult.The victimwaslaidoutonatriumphalbierintheEglisedesCordeliers, surroundedbytricolorhangingsalongwithtwostonesfromtheBastille DavidandHistoricalFiction / 185 Figure5.J.-L.David,HeadofMarat,1753(Versailles,muséenationalduchâteau). inscribed"Marat"and"l'Amidupeuple";hismakeshiftdesk,thebath- tub,andtheinkwellwereexhibitedlikeinstrumentsofthepassion.The woundresemblingChrist's(whichDavidrepresentedaccurately),com- binedwithMarat'sgiftofprophecyandthetoposofself-sacrifice,fur- thercontributedtoMarat'ssanctificationafterhisdeath.25Butnoteven theflowerslovinglytossedonMarat'sbiercoulddisguisetherapidputre- 186 / McPHERSON factionofthecorpseresultingfromtheheatandthediseasedstateofthe deceased.Thewoundgaped;Marat'sfeaturessoonbecameunrecognizable ;andrumorsoftheplaguebegantocirculate.Thegarishfaceand torsoactuallyhadtobewhitenedforthefuneralprocession,whose timingwasunexpectedlyadvanced(Guilhaumou,62-64).On17July MaratwasburiedinthegardenoftheCordeliers;hisheart,likethoseof Frenchkings,wasembalmedseparately.Atthefuneralapaintingdepict- ingMaratduséjourdesImmortelsauxFrançais(ofwhichnotrace remains)wasexhibited.Themiseensublimewasnowcomplete.26 InrepresentingtheDeathofMaratDavidtookanumberofliberties, beginningwiththeroomitself,whichwasactuallywallpaperedandfur- nished,notadark,indeterminatehole.Healsoprominentlydisplayed CharlotteCorday'ssecond,undeliveredletter,theonewhichappealedto Marat'smercy,andtheassignattobedeliveredtoamotheroffive.These attributes,togetherwiththewoodencrateandtheasceticsurroundings, associatedtherevolutionarymartyrwithChristiancharity,notavirtue forwhichhehadbeenparticularlynotedinlife.27Furthermore,David's verismfunctionsselectively;thehighlyillusionistictreatmentofdetails, suchasthegrainofthewood,thetrompel'oeilinscription,andthe bloodiedknife,seeminglyguaranteestheauthenticityofthescene.Para- doxically,however,theverisimilitudeoftheobjectsalsocontributesto thepicture'ssacredauraortranscendence,functioningasametaphysical springboardlikeLoyola'sexercisesinmeditation.Finally,Marat'shid- eousfeaturesandunsightlyillnesshavebeenpaintedoutofthepicture. Thepoweroftheimageresidesinitsuneasyblendofthereligiousand thesecular,violenceandtransfiguration,gruesomefactandcleansing fiction,asBaudelairesoaptlynotedin1846whenhereferredtothe appeasingroleofdeath,whichgivestheworkatender,poignantquality. "Cruellikenature,thispicturehasalltheperfumeoftheideal"(225).28 YetasMarie-HélèneHúethassuggested,thedeathofMaratwasa complexchronicleofadeathforetoldinwhichvictimandmurderer becamereversiblewhentheeventswererestaged.29Severalmonths beforetheassassinationMarathadbeentriedandacquittedbytheRevo- lutionaryTribunal,whicheffectivelyturnedhimintoa"livingmartyr" andplacedhimoutsidethereachofthelaw.30Thehalfdozenplaysthat reenactedthedeathofMarat(oftenendingwithanapotheosis),like David'smemorablepainting,illustratedtheimpossiblityofforgetting andpresentedadoubleimageofdeathandresurrection.31Thethree playsthatcelebratedCharlotteCorday'sinfamousactcompletedthe cyclebegunbythetrialandexecutionofLouisXVI.OnApril24,1793, beforetheTribunal,Marathadreferredtohimselfas"martyrandapos- tleofliberty."David'sbloodyeffigy,withitspersonalizedfunerary DavidandHistoricalFiction / 187 inscription,exemplifiesthesublimeorécriturepolitiqueintheBarthean sense—anentelekheiaoftheRevolutionarylegendthatrequiredtheatri- calamplificationandimposedacivicconsecrationofbloodshed.32 Despitehisdistasteforitsrevolutionarysubject,Delécluzehailedthe DeathofMaratasthefirstdemonstrationofthepowerandoriginalityof David'stalent(405-406).ForDelécluze,David'sMaratopenedtheway forhispost-Revolutionarymasterpieces,theSabinesandthe Coronation. ThepoliticalcasetobemadeinNapoleon'sofficialportraitswasmore complex—thedoubleproblemwasoneoflegitimationandconsecration: howtoprovideamilitaryopportunistwithanimperial(preferably Roman)pedigree.ThemostblatantexampleisundoubtedlytheBona- parteCrossingtheAlpsatSaint-Bernard,1800(fig.2),ofwhichfive versionsexist.Theequestrianportrait,commissionedbyCharlesIVof Spain,representsNapoleonintheMarengocostume,swathedinaswirl- ingcapethatwasapparentlyinventedbytheartist.33Beginningwith Delécluze(233),mostscholarshaveattributedtheideabehindthepor- traittoNapoleonhimself,whosupposedlytoldDavidthathewishedto berepresentedicilymasteringhisfierysteed.34Itisnotknownexactly whentheartistandthefutureEmperorfirstmet;however,theywere certainlyincontactby1798.35AfterhisvictoryatMarengo,Napoleon, thenfirstconsul,requestedthatDavidpainthisportrait.Davidaccepted withenthusiasmeventhoughBonaparterefusedtopose,maintaining thatportraitsofgreatmenoughttodisplaytheirgenius;physicalresem- blancewasthereforeoflittleconsequence(Delécluze,231-32).David hadinitiallyenvisagedpaintingagrandioseportraitofNapoleonafter theBattleofCastiglionewiththetreatyofFormio,accompaniedbyan attendantholdinghishorse.Duringthesinglethree-hoursittingthathe wasaccorded,DavidsketchedNapoleon'sheadinthe"Atelierofthe...