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ADanceintheMind: TheProvincialScottish PhilosophicalSocieties KATHLEENHOLCOMB 1heEnlightenmentinScotlandistoaverygreatextenttheproductof theclubsandsocietiesthatattractedtheenergiesandloyaltiesofmenall overthecountry.InEdinburgh,especially,thesocietiescanbeseenas channelingtheforcesoftheEnlightenment;theopinionofLordKarnes, thatthey"contributedgreatlytotheimprovementanddiffusionoflitera- tureandofscience,"wassharedbythemembersoftheEdinburghphilosophicalclubs .TheevolutionoftheSocietyforImprovingArtsand ManufacturesintothePhilosophicalSocietyofEdinburghandfinally intotheRoyalSocietyofEdinburghemphasizestheactivepurposeofthe clubsinthecapital.Karnes'sbiographerapprovinglynotestheirgoal: "thecultivationofeverybranchofscience,erudition,andtaste."1 TheEdinburghmodelisnotaltogetherappropriatetootherScottish philosophicalsocieties,however.ThereweresuchsocietiesinGlasgow andEdinburgh,justastherewereimprovingsocietiesinthosetownsand insmallerones.Butthephilosophicalandtheimprovingfunctionswere keptseparate;thephilosophicalsocietiesweredesignedforspeculation, notnecessarilytoproducesocialchangeortoimprovearts,agriculture, ormanufacture. TheprovincialsocietiesdidsharewiththeEdinburghgroupssome characteristicslistedbyRogerEmerson:"Theyrelatedtheirmembersto theEuropeanworldoflearningandcertifiedthemascitizensofthe 89 90 / HOLCOMB RepublicofLetters...AsocietyliketheEdinburghPhilosophical Society...providedScotswithanopportunitytocontributetoEuropeanscienceandletterswhileretainingasenseofregionalconsciousness . Astronomicalobservationsmadeinthenorthwereuseful,plantsand animalswerestilltobediscovered."Butothercharacteristicsnotedby EmersonarelesstrueoftheAberdeenandGlasgowgroups."Thearticu- lationofaScottishviewpointandtheimprovementofScots'culturewas anunstatedpurposeofmostoftheeighteenth-centuryEdinburgh clubs."2LifewasimprovedinAberdeenandGlasgow,certainly,andby themenwhobelongedtotheGlasgowLiterarySocietyandtotheAber- deenPhilosophicalSociety—butthatimprovementcanbetracedtotheir personalcommitmentortoimprovingsocietiesofwhichtheywerealso membersratherthandirectlytoanydesignofthelocalphilosophical societies.Thesewereinsteaddesignedtoproducethinkingonnatural philosophy,mentalscience,socialscience,asthesecouldbeunderstood universallyoratleastrelatedtothelargerEuropeanintellectualcontext. Inthepaperswhichsurvive,socialquestionsarediscussedinuniversal terms,withsparsereferencetoactionandwithrarereferencetoScot- land.EconomicanddemographicquestionsareplacedinaEuropean context,evenwhentheybeginasaconsiderationofScottishissues.The provincialphilosophicalsocietieswerenotfunctionalimprovingsoci- eties.TheydidnotarticulateaScottishviewpoint.Theygavenomedals. InAberdeen,organizationsrelatedtotheEnlightenmentbeganlong beforetheestablishmentoftheAberdeenPhilosophicalSocietyin1758; a1736PhilosophicalClubenjoyedabriefexistence;somediscussionsare recordedinReid'spapers.Perhapsamoreimportantprecursorwasa TheologicalClub,foundedin1742byGeorgeCampbellandafewother divinitystudentsfortheirpersonalimprovementasministers.Thisgroup subsisted"agoodmanyyears";Campbell"recommendfs]thepracticeof formingsuchsmallsocieties,"notingthat"whenthereisaproperchoice ofpersons,anentireconfidenceinoneanother,andarealdispositionto bemutuallyuseful,itisoneofthemostpowerfulmeansofimprovement thatIknow."3CampbellwasoneofthefoundersofthePhilosophical Society,whosesmallsizeallowedthekindofintenselypersonalinterac- tionCampbellpreferred.ThoughtheTheologicalClubdevelopedathe- oryofdiscoursethatCampbellincorporatedinhisworkforthePhilosophicalSocietyandlaterin77iePhilosophyofRhetoric ,neitherofthese earlysocietieshadanymajorimpactoncultureinAberdeen. Aberdeencouldhardlybeclassedaculturalbackwater,however.For instance,itspopulationofabout15,000atmid-centurycouldsupporta newspaper,several"friendly"societies,aMasoniclodge,andevena MusicalSocietysupportedby"gentlemanamateurs."Thisgroupappears ScottishPhilosophicalSocieties / 91 tohavegeneratedsomesmallerones;DavidSkene,thenayoungphysi- cian,wasafoundingmember(1760)ofaMusicaliClubthat,according toitsInstitution,wastomeetmonthlywiththepurposeof"performinga ConcertofInstrumentalMusic."Skenewasalsoafoundingmemberofa PhysicallClub(1750),whosemembersreadDissertations"fortheir mutualiImprovementintheirProfession."Bymid-century,Aberdeen hadsupported"acontinuouslineofprinter-publishers,"theAberdeen InfirmaryandRobertGordon'sHospital.4PerhapsbecauseAberdeen alreadyhadavarietyofculturalinstitutions,themembersofthePhilo- sophicalSocietydeclinedtomakethatbodyanimprovingone. Itistruethatthememberssuggestedtopicsrelatedtoimprovement. Dr.JohnGregoryasks"Whatarethegood&badeffectsoftheprovi- sionsforthepoorbypoorsrates,infirmarys,hospitals&thelike?"but whatevertheanswer,thedebatecouldhardlyhavebeenaseffectiveas Gregoryhimselfwasinpromotingmedicaleducationandhealthcarein Aberdeen.GregoryandSkene"attemptedaCollegeofMedicineinAberdeen ,"5Gregorylecturingstudentsinpre-medicine,andSkeneinstruct- ingyoungwomeninmidwifery.Thisworkdidnothaveitsorigininthe considerationsofthephilosophicalsociety. Similarly,thoughmanymembersofthesocietyproposedquestions aboutsoilchemistryandfertility,theminutesshownoattemptstodo anyactualwork.Whatworkwasdonetowardagriculturalprogresswas theprovinceoftheGordon'sMillFarmingClub,towhichThomasReid andThomasGordonbelonged.Thatorganizationinvestigatedseveral differenttypesofplows,forinstance;Reidwaschargedwiththedevel- opmentofamethodofaccountancyfortheuseoffarmers,aprojecthe submittedtotheClubin1761.*Skene,notamemberofGordon'sMill, wasanotheragriculturalimprover,instructingLordKarnesinthedesign ofmossdunghills.7 TheSocietyheardaseriesofQuestionsoneducationalreform,butthe practicalworkineducationwasbeingdoneinothercontextsbyAlexan- derGerard,WilliamOgilvieandothersoftheprofessoriate(thoughthis storyisneitherclearnorhappy).Inthepracticeofeducation,however, thePhilosophicalSocietydidhaveaneffect.Directevidenceofaconnec- tionbetweenthePhilosophicalSocietyworkandthelecturesofthe King'sandMarischalCollegememberscanbefound.Reid'sOpticslec- turesprovidematerialforhisdiscourseonseeing—orviceversa.8 Gregory'sEdinburghmedicallecturesrepeatmaterialtobefoundinhis discourses.9GerardmadeimportantchangesinhisPneumatologylec- turesbetween1758and1768,specificallyinthediscussionofthefunc- tionofgenius,whichhisdiscourseswerethenexamining.10Andpractical 92 / HOLCOMB JamesDunbarrefershisKing'sCollegeclassestohisownbook,Essays ontheHistoryofMankindinRudeandCultivatedAges." Itwouldbeadistortiontodenythatintellectualimprovementresulted fromthebookswhichthemembersadaptedfromtheirdiscourses.Moral advancementishardertoassess,butifJamesBeattiecanbelieved,the demolitionofDavidHumewouldhavetobethemostimportantsingle moraladvanceanyonecouldmake,andhewasoftheopinionhehad achievedit.12Reid,Campbell,Gerard,GregoryandDunbaralsopub- lishedtheirworkfortheSociety;Reid'sandCampbell'shadwideand lastinginfluence.Allmentiontheencouragementtopublishthey receivedfromtheSociety,butthiswasnottheprimarypurposeofthe Society. Aninterestinscienceisfrequentlycitedasoneofthemarksofthe ScottishEnlightenment,andthePhilosophicalSocietywascertainly interestedinscience.LewisUlmancounts22QuestionsonNaturalPhi- losophy,secondonlytoMoralPhilosophywith23.13Manymembers sharedaninterestinbotany—Reid,Skene,Campbell,Ogilvie.The group'smathematicianswereStewartandReid,whohadworkedtheir waythroughNewton'sPrincipiaasstudents.Importantastronomyques- tionswereproposedbyGordon,RobertTraill,andReid.Butthough somewereverycompetentscientists,andatleastonedidoriginalwork, thatcompetenceneverhadawideaudienceandthatworkwasnever published;thuswecannotsaytheSocietyinfluencedscienceeitherby performanceorbypopularization,functionsStevenShapinclaimsfor theEdinburghsociety.14TheAberdeengroup'smostsolidscientific effortwasanattempttoobserveandmeasurethetransitofVenuspre- dictedbyHalleyforJuneof1761.Truly,hereweseeparticipationinthe Europeanworldoflearning.AQuestion(Question3)byRobertTraillin 1758broughttoAberdeentheglobalexcitementovertheexpectedtran- sit.ThemechanicalastronomerJamesFergusonpublishedapamphlet earlyin1761offering"APlainMethodofdeterminingtheParallaxof VenusbyherTransitovertheSun:andfromthence,byAnalogy,the ParallaxandDistanceoftheSun,andalltherestofthePlanets"(Lon- don,1761).TheRoyalSociety'sPhilosophicalTransactionseagerly awaitedreportsfromthefield.OnthemorningofJune6,Reidandthree orfourmembersoftheSocietywereonhandtomakeobservations,like volunteerastronomersalloverEurope. Reid'sreportontheobservationsisverybrief.Calculationshadbeen madeinadvance;goodequipmenthadbeensetup;butthemorningwas cloudy.Thegroupwasabletomakeonlytwoobservationsoftheplanet asitcrossedthesun.Nevertheless,fromtheseReidwasabletoderive someconclusions:eitherHalley'stableswereincorrectorthemapswhich ScottishPhilosophicalSocieties / 93 placedAberdeen"sevenminutesintimewestofLondon"were.15The remarksthataccompanythereportarelengthyandtechnical.Ifthe SocietyfollowedReid'sexplanations,thequalityoftheirastronomical andmathematicalunderstandingwashigh. ItispossiblethatReidhadanticipatedsendingareporttotheRoyal Society.IntheverybulkymaterialgatheredwiththeTransitofVenus paperarereportsofobservationsmadebyEuropeanastronomers.These reportsaretakenfromtheAberdeenMagazine,August1761,whichhad reprintedthemfromtheLondonMagazine.Theyappearaswellinthe PhilosophicalTransactions.ibReid'sresultswereinconclusive,butnot necessarilymoresothansomeoftheRoyalSociety'scorrespondents. TheAberdeengroup'sinconclusiveresultscanbeblamedontheweather, notonthequalityofthedesignoroftheexperiment.ScienceinAber- deenwascapableofmakingitscontributiontotheinternationalbrother- hood.Butthecontributionwasinfactnotmade.Aswillbeshownlater, theGlasgowLiterarySociety,orsomeofitsmembers,wasmorepersist- entwithitsobservationsofthe1769transit. ThedisinclinationtoenterthepublicworldofsciencewasnotReid's alone.Thesameistrueofthemostoriginalscientificworkdoneforthe PhilosophicalSociety,DavidSkene'sdiscoursesonnaturalhistory. Skene'searlybiographer,AlexanderThomsonofBanchory,isenthusias- ticinhisassessment:"Skenepursuedthestudyofnaturetoanextentand withanaccuracypreviouslyunknowninScotland;and...itisevident thathismeritswerethoroughlyrecognizedbyhiscontemporaries....it isimpossibletosayhowmuchscienceinScotlandmayhavebeen indebtedtohispersonalexertions,andtothestimulustoinquirywhich hegavetoallwithwhomheassociatedorcorresponded"(3). CertainlySkenebelongstotheinternationalscientificbrotherhood. HecorrespondedwithEuropeanscientists,notablyLinnaeus,whocited Skeneasanauthorityoncertaincorallines,andwithBritishnaturalists.17 SkenewasverymuchinterestedinthefaunaandfloraofNortheast Scotland;hecollectedandclassifiedfossilsandbotanicalspecimensand wassentspecimensbyothers.Thediscoursesonnaturalhistoryareclear andinteresting.18Buthedidnotpublishthem,thoughhecouldhave, despiteReid'sfriendlyurging,"Canyoufindnotime,eitherwhenyou arelaidupinthegout,orwhentherestoftheworldisingoodhealth,to bequeathsomethingtoposterity?"19Skenediedearly,withoutwritinga bookoncoal,oronfossils,oroninvertebrates,oronthefaunaandflora ofthenorthofScotland. Iftheaudienceforsciencerequiresacriticalmass,asShapinsuggests ,20wecansupposethatthenumbersinAberdeenweresimplynot there.ThesciencethattheSocietypracticedcouldbeformidable,butit 94 / HOLCOMB hadnoimpactoutsidetheSociety.AletterofJamesBeattie's(tohis friendR.Arbuthnot?writtenabout1791?)offersasupplementary insightintothediscontinuitybetweentheAberdeenPhilosophicalSoci- etyanditsculture:"Aclub,withwhichIwasformerlyconnected,once hadthoughtofmakingupafirmforpurchasingsuchnewbooksasare notcommonlyfoundinpublicklibraries;and[oneofthemembers] sketchedoutaplan(whichwasprinted)forregulatingtheoperationsof thesociety....Therewereinitsomanyprecautionsforpreventing abuses,andsomuchaboutcommittees,balloting,&cthat....[t]he projectofthelibrarysooncametonothing:thetheorybeingtoorefined andtoocomplextobeappliedtopractice."21 SeveralcircumstancesoperatedtomaketheGlasgowLiterarySociety ratherlessrefinedandcomplex,thoughithadaslittleoftheimproving spiritasdidtheAberdeengroup.AsinAberdeen,theappearanceofthe LiterarySocietywasprecededbyotherevidenceofhealthyintellectual life:thePoliticalScienceClubandtheFoulises'printingestablishment andArtAcademy,forexample.Theuniversitywasreadiertoaccept innovationsandtorespondtourbanandcommercialpressures.22The SocietyitselfwasdifferentfromtheAberdeengroup.Themembership wasmuchlargerandmuchmorevaried.Itsentmoreofitsmembersinto thelargerworldoftheEuropeanEnlightenment:AdamSmith,Joseph Black,WilliamCullen,theFoulises.23Theaudienceforsciencewas largerinGlasgow,partlybecausetechnologicalinnovationwassup- portedbytheuniversity.CertainlythesecondtransitofVenus,which occurredinJuly1769,generatedmoreinterestinGlasgowthanitsprede- cessorhadinAberdeen.Thisexperimentwasdirected,notbyReid,but byAlexanderWilson,ProfessorofAstronomy.Technicallyitoughtnot tobecreditedtotheLiterarySociety,asitseemsnottohavebeen officiallynotedbythemandasWilsonhadresignedhismembershipin 1765,butmanymembersdidtakepart.Indeed,thecitizensofGlasgow couldalsomakeaclaimforparticipation.Theastronomerhadadver- tisedbynewspaper,beggingthemtoputouttheirfirestheafternoonof thetransit."ThepolitenessoftheinhabitantsofGlasgow,incomplying withthisrequest,wasfargreaterthancouldwellbeexpected,insomuch thattherewasnotaspireofsmoketobeperceivedinthatquarterfrom whichtheobservationscouldbeincommoded."24Theaudienceforsci- enceinGlasgowmusttrulyhavebeendependable.Wilsondidrequest andobtainaninvitationfromtheLiterarySocietytoreadhisobserva- tionsonalessspectacularastronomicalevent,sunspots. IftheaudienceforsciencewasbroaderinGlasgow,itistrue,also,that theGlasgowgroupwaslessremovedfromitsnationalcontextthanits Aberdeencounterpart.TheDiscoursesandQuestionslistedintheparts ScottishPhilosophicalSocieties / 95 oftheMinutesstillextant(Nov.1764-May1779,withlonginterruptions) arebothmorevariedandmorespecificthanthoseofAberdeen.More areonlawandcommerce;morementionScotlandspecifically,andmore dealwithmattersofpublicpolicy.TheseincludeReid'squestiononthe warehousingofgrain(January30,1778),itspredecessor,JohnMillar's discourseonrestrainingtheimportationofgrain(Nov.28,1777),an itembyJohnAnderson,"Whatistheconductpropertobeobservedby G.BritainwithregardtotheColonyofN.England"(November11, 1769),onebyAndrewFoulis,"Inordertoanequalrepresentationof PropertyandPeopleoughtnotthepowertobetakenfromdecayed Burghsandgiventothosewhichhaveincreased"(April28,1769).Buta largenumbercouldbetreatedonlyspeculatively.ArchibaldArthurread aseriesonbeauty;JamesMoorseveralonthefinearts.25 TheLiterarySocietywasalsoabletofititselfintothelifeofthetown. AformerstudentofJamesBeattie'sdescribesameetingofthegroup whichheapparentlyattendedasavisitor:"Thelastpointdisputedwas, WhethertherepealofthepenallawsrespectingPopery,wouldbe attendedwithgood,orbadconsequences,tothekingdomingeneral?Dr. Reidmaintainedmildly,thattheRepealwouldbeattendedwithnobad consequences.Mr.Anderson&c,thatitwould.—TheNat.Philosopher [Anderson]comparedthePapiststoaRattle-Snake,harmlesswhenkept underproperrestraint:butdangerouslikeit,whenatfullliberty;and readytodiffuseabalefulpoisonaround."Anderson'sopinionwas apparentlysharedbytheclergyoftheSynod,whoproclaimedapublic fast"principallyonaccountoftheapprehendedgrowthofPopery."26 Theinterchangerecordedinthisletterseemstohavebeentypical.Unlike theAberdeensociety,theGlasgowgroupallowedparticipationbynonmembers .Althoughthestructureofthemeetingswasdesignedtodis- courageheateddebate,bothAndersonandJohnMillardisputedwith Reid."Theheatofthesebattleswas,however,neverallowedtorankle long...afterthedebateswereconcluded."27 Reid'sGlasgowdiscourseshavebeenrediscoveredinthelastfewyears. Theydonotreflectheatedbattles,althoughsomeofthemareontopics thathadgeneratedsuchbattles.Forexample,Reidofferedhisquestion "OntheWarehousingofGrain"asasupplementalquestion,presumably inresponsetoadiscourseMillarhadreadafewweeksearlierandinthe contextofpublicdebate.Several"GlasgowTheorists"(SirJames Steuert'sphrase)hadpublishedpamphletsonthetopic,promptingan irritatedletterfromthepoliticaleconomist.Reid'spaperisverysimilar inmatterandstructuretoatreatmentofthesubjectinAdamSmith's WealthofNationstowhichSteuertobjected;28additionally,bothSmith andReidarelesspolemicalandlesshystericalthanmostCornLaw 96 / HOLCOMB pamphleteers.Thetopiclaterbecameurgentwhenthefamineworsened, butReid'spaperismorespeculativethanpractical. Thespeculativebiaspermeatesotherapparentlytopicalquestionson issuessuchasinterestratesandrecoinage.EventheFrenchRevolutionis treatedabstractlyinReid'sLiterarySocietywork,thoughitisknown thathewasdeeplycommittedtotheRevolution,especiallywhenitwas young.Millar,whocouldneverhavebeenaccusedofneutralityonthis subject,wouldhavetakenalmostanidenticalstand.29Themembersof theLiterarySocietyapparentlydidnotregardtheirgroupasaforumfor commentontheRevolution. CertainlyRevolutionarysentimentinGlasgowbefore1792waswell known...

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