Swift and the 'Conjectural Histories' of the Eighteenth Century: The Case of the Fourth Voyage

Swiftandthe'ConjecturalHistories'of theEighteenthCentury: TheCaseoftheFourthVoyage CHARLESH.HINNANT 1heFourthVoyageofGulliver'sTravelsembodiesanunderlying anthropologicalopposition,theoppositionbetweenhunter-gatherers (theYahoos)andagriculturists(theHouyhnhnms).Thisoppositioncan throwlightonthefamiliardebatebetweenthe"soft"and"hard"schools ofinterpretationoftheFourthVoyage.1Forthemostpart,thisdebate— asaptlytermedandoutlinedbyJamesL.Cliffordinanessaypublished in19742—hasalwaysbeencastinuniformitarianoressentialistterms. Thatis,ithasinvariablybeenpreoccupiedwithsupposedlyuniversal truths,truthswhichhavetheirfoundationinthenotionofanessential humannature.Itistobeexpected,ofcourse,thattheFourthVoyage wouldproduceverydifferentinterpretations,accordingtowhetherit wasbeingstudiedfromthevantagepointofthehardschool,basicallyin termsoftheentirerace,orfromtheangleofincidenceofthesoftschool, intermsofthesolitaryindividual.Whatisenlighteningisthatthesame essentialismwasmanifestedonbothsidesoftheargument.Accordingto thehardschool,Swift'stargetistheprideandpretensionsofthatanimal calledman;thesoftschool,alsopreoccupiedwithman,shiftedattention fromthecollectiveaggregatetoLemuelGulliver.Astheoneactual humanbeingpresentinthefirstninechapters,Gulliver,itwasargued, wastheobvioustargetofSwift'ssatireonhumanpride.Thesoftschool alsocontestedtheclaimofthehardschoolthattheHouyhnhnms 75 76 / HlNNANT embodytheUtopianidealofatruelifeofreason.IftheHouyhnhnmsare tobejustifiedatall,itisbecausethey,liketheYahoos,representan extremeagainstwhichhumanbehaviormaybemeasured.Byinsisting that"theproperlifeformanisnotthatofYahooorofHouyhnhnm,for hehasinsomethingofboth,andintheblendingofpassionandreason, bodyandmind,somethingdifferentfromthesesimple,naturalcrea- tures,"KathleenWilliams,tociteperhapsthemostfamiliarexample, arguedthattheFourthVoyagewasdramatizingatimeless,universal truth,thenotionofaviamediaorgoldenmean.3 ItwouldbewrongtorepresentthisdebateasstilldominantinSwift studies.Onthecontrary,itappears,ifbibliographicalentriesareany indication,tohavebeenlosingsteamforsometime.Perhapsonereason forthegradualdiminutionofinterestamongscholarsinthisdisputelies inthewayinwhichithasusuallybeenframed.Thisessaywillarguethat, inonerespectatleast,essentialismwastheunperceivedanduncontested commongroundofboththehardandsoftschools.Totheextentthatthe hardschoolenvisagedtheHouhynhnmsasanidealofpurereasonand theYahoosasanemblemofhumandepravityandsinfulness,itseemed bound,likeitsmorebenigncounterpart,toencourageacomplacent attitudetowardtheexistingsocialorder.If"humannature"isviewedin whollypessimisticterms,itgoeswithoutsayingthatsocialandpolitical conditionswillbeseeninasimilarmanner.Thisdifficultyiswhathasled totheattempt,implicitalsointheargumentofthepresentessay,to redefinethehardschoolinterpretationoftheFourthVoyageinasome- whatmoreflexibleway.InsteadofascribingSwift'ssatiretoaconcep- tionofnaturaldepravityororiginalsin,Iwanttolocateitwithinan iconoclasticcritiqueoftheemergingeighteenth-centurysciencesofman, especiallythescienceofanthropology. Thereisatleastonewayinwhichthehardschoolappearstoresemble thesoftschool:itmystifiesevilandinvestshumandepravitywitha quasi-transcendentalstatus.Swift,bywayofcontrast,appearstotake considerableprecautiontoavoiddoingeitherofthesethings.Indeed, throughouthiscareer,Swiftconsistentlyrepudiatesessentialism.InA TaleofaTubtheadjective"universal"isinscribedinalinkedgroupof phrasesdevotedtoaparodiedeflationofthepretensionsoftheModern hack.4ItisfromthesameperspectivethatSwiftpokesfunin"The Preface"atthekindofmisanthropicsatirethatallowsthereadertoset asideitsattack,todeflectitontotheother:"TisbutaBallbandiedto andfro,andeveryMancarriesaracketaboutHimtostrikeitfrom himselfamongtherestoftheCompany"(51).Thispossibilityissufficienttorenderineffectualanysatiredirectedatgeneralhumandepravity andvice;SwiftholdsthatinEnglandatleastthiskindofsatirecouldall "ConjecturalHistories" / 77 tooeasilybetransformedintoanideologicallegitimationofthestatus quo:"Here,youmaysecurelydisplayyourutmostRhetorickagainst Mankind,intheFaceoftheWorld;tellthemTAa/allaregoneastray; Thatthereisnonethatdothgood,nonotone;Thatweliveinthevery DregsofTime;ThatKnaveryandAtheismareasEpidemickasthePox; thatHonestyisfledwithAstraea';withanyotherCommonPlaces equallynewandeloquent"(51-52).These"CommonPlaces"possessa commonfeature:theyareopposedtotheexposureofaparticularindi- vidual,totheexposureofthecorruptionoftheindividual,andaboveall totheexposureofthecorruptionofanindividualinpowerorpublic prominence.ReferringtotheAtticstage,Swiftinsiststhat"itwasthe PrivilegeandBirth-rightofeveryCitizenandPoet,torailaloudandin publick,ortoexposeupontheStagebyName,anyPersontheypleased, tho'ofthegreatestFigure,whetheraCreon,anHyperbolos,anAlcibiades ,oraDemosthenes"(51).Thescopeofthiskindofraillerycannot belimitedtoessentialistnotionsofuniversaldepravity.Otherwise,it wouldlacktheshockvalue,thescandalofthespecificindictment:"a singleHintinpublick,HowsuchaonestarvedhalftheFleet,andhalf- poison'dtherest:Howsuchaone,fromatrueprincipleofLoveand Honour,paysnoDebtsbutforWenchesandPlay:Howsuchaonehas gotaclapandrunsoutofhisEstate...whoever,Isay,shouldventureto bethusparticular,mustexpecttobeimprisonedforScandalumMagna- tum"(53).Humandepravityisnotanabstraction,separablefromthe actionsofsuchindivdualsasthese,but,onthecontrary,canonlybe manifestedbytheiractions. Swift'scritiqueofessentialisminATaleofaTubhasofcoursebeen noticed,butithasneverbeenlinkedtohislatersatire,perhapsbecause thiscritiqueseemstohavebeenmelioratedinsubsequentlettersand poems.YetthereisnoevidencethatSwift'slatercommentschallengethe underlyingpremiseofhisearlierpolemic.Thesubstitutionof"animal rationiscapax"for"animalrationale"5canbetakentosuggestthatthe Stoicdefinitionofmanasanimalrationalemightbetheeffectofakind ofnaiveteandthatthissuspicionissufficienttosuspendbeliefinthat definition.Butwhatremainssuspendedisnotonlythestatusofrational- ityasthedifferentiaofthedefinition.Suspendedalsoistheveryformof adefinitionoftheessenceofhumannature,theclassicalassumption concerningthedominatingauthorityofthisdefinitionofessence,anda correspondingbeliefintheconsistencyofitsapplicationtoparticular individualsandgroups.Inplaceofthismetaphysicaldetermination, Swiftsubstitutesamaterialpreoccupationwithpowerandauthority. ThuswhenhewritestoPopethat"IhaveeverhatedallNationsprofes- sionsandCommunityes[sic],andallmyloveistowardindividuals" 78 / HlNNANT (idem),heappearstobeshiftingthefocusofhisearlierremarksonsatire inATaleofaTubfromtheindividualtothegroup.Yethemayalsobe indicatingaswellhisdetestationofthequasi-metaphysicalrepresenta- tions,theuniversalizingmystificationsthatperpetuatesuchcollectivities. Bythesamecriteria,itmaybewrongtoassertthatSwift'ssatiricapolo- giainthe"VersesontheDeathofDr.Swift"necessarilyrepresentsa softeningofhisearlierstance.Byinsistingthat"HisSatyrpointsatno Defect,/ButwhatallMortalsmaycorrect"(lines467-68),6Swiftmay notsimplybeaffirminganoptimisticnotionofcorrigibility.Hemayalso beinsisting,crucially,uponthelimitationofamisanthropicandcorro- sivesatirethatispointedatuniversalhumancorruption.Ultimately, suchalinkageencouragestheconvictionthatmanispowerlesstoeffect changeandthusmustacceptasaxiomaticforhumansandtheirsocieties, thebiblicalteacher'sclaimthat"whatiscrookedcannotbemade straight"(Ecclesiastes1:15). TheFourthVoyagereflectsanotherdimensionofSwift'scritiqueof essentialism.Thiscritiqueisperhapsmostinstructivelyrevealedbyplac- ingitinthecontextofthenewlyemergingdisciplineofanthropology. Thissciencehasoftenbeentracedback,asiswellknown,tothematrix oftravelliteraturethatprovidedtheculturalcontextandintertextforGulliver'sTravels.Swift'svoyagescombinetwomodesofdiscoursethat weresoontobecomeseparated.Onemode,exemplifiedinthechapters onthecustomsandmannersofthepeoplesthatGullivervisits,liesatthe centerofeachvoyage;theothermodeisembodiedintheaccountsofthe adventuresandincidentsthatoccupytheoutwardjourneyandreturn. Wheretheformermodewastobecomethebasisforthedisciplinesof anthropologyandhistoricalsociology,thelatterwastobecomethe groundworkforthemodernliteratureoftravel.Defoe'sTourThrough theWholeIslandofGreatBritainmightbesaidtoanticipatetheformer disciplinesinitsemphasisonsystematicdescriptionbasedonactual contactandinitsabsenceofanyrealinterestintheparticulardetailsof thetour.RobinsonCrusoe,bycontrast,anticipatesthelattergenrenot onlyinitsexploitationofthefictionalpotentialofitssubjectmatterbut alsointheheightenedattentionitdevotestothepersonalexperiencesof thevoyager.InRobinsonCrusoe,thedesertedislandalsocomestorest intheplacecustomarilyoccupiedbythedepictionofasavagesocietyas seenbya"truewitness."Thevirtualdisappearanceofsavagesfromthis emptiedplaceisnotmerelyanaspectofCrusoe'snarrative;itisthevery conditionofitspossibility.Whatcannotberepresentedexceptthrough directobservationiswhatdisappearsfromview. Initsinitial,eighteenth-centuryphase,thescienceofanthropology offersanalternativetoessentialism.Totheextentthatitsoughtto "ConjecturalHistories" / 79 accountfordifferencesbetweencultures,itturnedattentionfromthe problemofhumanunitytotheproblemofthegenesisanddevelopment ofhumansocieties.7Thisisperhapsmostevidentinitsnotionofa unilinearyetunequalsocialdevelopmentbasedonmodesoffoodpro- duction:allsocieties,itargued,mustpassthroughaseriesoffourdis- tinctstageswhosepastmomentsarerepresentedinthecontemporary worldbysavageandbarbarouspeoples.Thesestagesarehuntingand gathering,pastoralism,agriculture,andtheformationofcitiesand states.Thisideawasabasicelementinthe"conjecturalhistories"and "historiesofcivilsociety"oftheScottishphilosophes-AdamSmith, LordKarnes,JohnMillar,AdamFergusonandLordMonboddo—and theirFrenchcounterparts.InSketchesoftheHistoryofMan,for example,publishedin1774,LordKarnesprojectsatotalhistoryofthe humanrace,tracingitsprogressfromsavagerytothehighestlevelof civilizationandimprovement.Themostprimitivestageisthatofhunt- ing,fishing,andgatheringofthenaturalfruitsoftheland;inthisstage, thereislittlepropertyandscarcelyanyevidenceofsubordinationor government.Thenextstageisthatofherderswhopossesspropertyand hencerudimentarydistinctionsbetweenrichandpoor,mastersandser- vants.Karnes'stheoryisbothcomparativeanduniformitarian,inthe sensethatitpostulatesatheoryofevolutionbywhichthelevelofmate- rialcultureofallsocietiescanbemeasuredandderivesthattheoryfrom ananalysisofstagesofproductionthatareaccompaniedbycertaintypes ofpoliticalinstitutionandcertaindistinctiveculturaltraits.8 Suchadevelopmentalistconceptionofanthropologyreacheditszenith inthemidandlateeighteenthcentury,butithaditsrootsinearliereras. Infact,Swiftcouldhavefoundadumbrationsofthetheoryoffour stagesofcultureinavarietyofGreekandRomansources,fromPlato andAristotlethroughtheEpicureansandStoics.Plato'stheoretical reconstructionofthedevelopmentofanysocietyfromitsearliestphase producedadivisionintothefourstagesoffamily,village,townandpolis (Laws,676-682a).Aristotledistinguishedhunters,shepherds,cultiva- tors,andtraders(Politics1.8,1256a.30-1256b.5).InDeReRustica Varròtracedthefourstagesofmaninthefollowingmanner:"theearliest stagewasastateofnature,whenmenlivedonthosethingswhichthe virginearthbore;fromthislifetheypassedintoasecond,apastorallife, ...Finallyinthethirdstage,fromthepastorallifetheyattainedthe agricultural,inwhichtheyretainedmanyofthefeaturesofthetwo earlierperiods,andfromwhichtheycontinuedforalongtimeinthe conditionwhichtheyhadreacheduntilthatinwhichwelivedwas attained"(DeReRustica,II,1,3ff.)9Thespecificcomponentsofthis essentiallyEpicureanandLucretianviewwerethenotionofprogress,a 80/ HINNANT sharpdivisionbetweendifferentlevelsofmaterialculture,andaperspec- tiveinwhichtheearlieststagewasseenasprimitiveandimpoverished. Thereweremorerecentarticulationsofaunilinearconceptionofsoci- etythatSwiftmightalsohaveknown.BishopBossuet'sDiscourssur l'HistoireUniverselle(1681)belongstoatraditionthatsoughttoaccom- modatethehistoryofnationswithinthesixthousandyearsofbiblical chronology.YetBossuet'sDiscours,whichJohannesFabianhascharac- terizedasananticipationoftheenlightenmentgenreof"philosophical history,"describedtheevolutionoftheartsaftertheFloodessentiallyin developmentalistterms:"Theearth,butanimmenseforestinthebegin- ning,takesonanewform:clearingsmakeroomforfields,pastures, hamlets,villages,and,finally,towns."10Toacertainextent,theargu- mentsofthe"conjecturalhistorians"werealsoanticipated,asRobert Nisbethasargued,intherationalisticpoliticaltheoriesofHobbes, Locke,Pufendorf,andothers.Theirconceptionofaprehistoricstateof naturewasaresponsetothebelief,fosteredbytravelnarratives,thatthe customsandvaluesofotherpresent-daypeoplescouldbeusedtounder- standtheoriginofallcivilsocieties." Inasimilarmanner,SirWilliamTemplecontendedinessaysofthe 1670sand1680s,especiallythe"EssayupontheOriginandNatureof Government"and"UpontheGardensofEpicurus"that,inspiteof differencesinclimateandculture,allsocietiesevolveinprettymuchthe sameway:"Inthefirstandmostsimpleagesofeachcountry,thecondi- tionsandlivesofmenseemtohavebeenverynearofkinwiththerestof thecreatures:theylivedbythehour,orbytheday,andsatisfiedtheir appetitewithwhattheycouldgetfromtheherbs,thefruits,thesprings theymetwithwhentheywerehungryordry,then,withwhatfish,fowl, orbeaststheycouldkill."12Whatdistinguishesmoreadvancedsocieties fromthisrudimentarystateofhuntingandgathering,Templeargued, canbefoundinman'scapacitytoemancipatehimselffromthepresent moment.Inlaterages,accordingtoTemple,man"castabout,howby sowingofgrain,andbypastureofthetamercattle,toprovideforthe wholeyear."InTemple'spatriarchalistratherthancontractarian account,themostadvancedage,characterizedbytheintroductionof money,arosenotfromadvancesintheartsandsciencesbutfromthe father'swishtokeeppartofhisfamily'sincrease:"dividingthelands necessaryfortheseuses,firstamongchildren,andthenamongservants, hereservedtohimselfaproportionoftheirgain,eitherinthenative stock,orsomethingequivalent,whichbroughtintheuseofmoney" (3:203).Thedevelopmentalisthypothesiswasthusgivenattentionlong beforethemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury,anditwasthewidespread circulationofreportsofprimitivesocietiesabroadthatledtoitsrevival. "ConjecturalHistories" / 81 WhatlinksSwift'ssatiretothisdevelopmentalisthypothesisisitsiden- tificationofdifferentgroupsoftheFourthVoyagewithdifferentstages inthedevelopmentofhumanculture:theYahoosareportrayedas hunter-gatherers,theHouyhnhnmsasherdsmenandfarmers,andWest- ernEuropeansocietyispresentedasthemostadvancedstageofhuman culture.Withinthiscontext,thesatireoftheFourthVoyageunfoldsin anunusualway.Itdoesnotcontestthesystemofclassification,onwhich culturalanthropologycontinuestoresteventoday,nordoesitchallenge thebasiceconomiccriteriabywhichthedifferentstagesaredistin- guished.Whatitdoesdoistotakeissuewiththeethnocentrismand celebratoryteleologythatsustainedandpropelledtheevolutionist hypothesis.ByestablishinganimplicitparallelbetweentheYahoosand WesternEuropeans,theFourthVoyageupsetsthelogicimplicitin eighteenth-centurytravelliteratureand"conjecturalhistory":itmakesit possibleforanadvancedformofhumanculture—thedevelopmentof citiesandstates—tobeenvisagedasamaskedreformulationofthemost primitiveandimpoverishedlevelofhumanculture.Thisdevelopmentis seenasimplicitinhunting-gatheringfromitsverybeginning.Itisan inevitableconsequenceofitsunderlyingstructureandlogic. TherudimentarystateoftheYahoosiscapturedmosttellinglyinthe attentiondevotedintheFourthVoyagetotheirpromiscuousmethodsof huntingandgatheringfood.WhenGulliverfirstenterstheHouyhnhnm compounds,heseesthree"ofthosedetestableCreatures...feeding uponRoots,andtheFleshofsomeAnimals,"whichhe"foundtobethat ofAssesandDogs,andnowandthenaCowdeadbyAccidentor Disease."13Muchlater,theHouyhnhnmmasterconfirmsGulliver'sini- tialperception,insistingthat"therewasnothingthatrenderedthe Yahoosmoreodious,thantheirundistinguishingAppetitetodevour everythingthatcameintheirWay,whetherHerbs,Roots,Berries,cor- ruptedFleshofAnimals,orallmingledtogether"(261).ThattheHouy- hnhnms,whotendmilkcowsandraiseoats,belongtoamuchhigher stageofcultureismadeobviousbythefactthattheHouyhnhnmmaster isunabletocomprehendwhytheYahoospreferhuntingtofarming:"it waspeculiarintheirTemper,"hetellsGulliver,"thattheywerefonderof whattheycouldgetbyRapineorStealthatagreaterDistancethanmuch betterFoodprovidedforthemathome.IftheirPreyheldout,they wouldeattilltheywerereadytoburst,afterwhichNaturehadpointed outtothemacertainRootthatgavethemanaturalevacuation" (261-62). ThequestionmightimmediatelyberaisedwhetherSwiftmeantthis primitivestatetobeunderstoodasaspecificstageinthedevelopmentof culture.Thereisnoevidence,sofarasIamaware,thatSwiftever 82 / HlNNANT formulatedanexplicittheoryofhistoricaldevelopment...